Practical Electronic Reliability Engineering: Getting the Job Done from Requirement through Acceptance

615 Pages·1992·11.7 MB·English

by  Jerome Klion (auth.)

Practical Electronic
Relia hili ty Engineering
PRACTICAL ELECTRONIC
RELIABILITY ENGINEERING
Getting the Job Done from
Requirement through Acceptance
Jerome Klion
~ VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD
~ _____N ew York
Copyright © 1992 by Van Nostrand Reinhold
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1992
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 91-39601
ISBN-13:978-94-011-6972-1 e-ISBN -13 :978-94-011-6970-7
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-011-6970-7
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the
copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or
by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and
retrieval systems-without written permission of the
publisher.
Manufactured in the United States of America
Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold
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Thomas Nelson Australia
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Nelson Canada
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Scarborough, Ontario MIK 5G4, Canada
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Klion, Jerome, 1935-
Practical electronic reliability engineering: getting the job
done from requirement through acceptance / Jerome Klion.
p. cm.
Includes index.
1. Electronic apparatus and appliances-Reliability. I. Title.
TK7870.K554 1992
621.381'54-dc20 91-39601
CIP
This book is dedicated to my wife Lila. Her encouragement,
effort, and suggestions made its completion possible.
Acknowledgement is also given to Mr Mark McCallumfor his
technical aid in the preparation of the manuscript.
Contents
Preface / xvii
1. Reliability: An Introduction To Concepts and Terms /1
1.1 Reliability and Failure: The Concept /1
1.2 Reliability: Its Origin /5
1.3 Reliability: A Quantitative Definition /6
1.4 Reliability: Comprehension of Definitions, Measures,
and Specifications /11
2. Application of Failure Distributions to Reliability /17
2.l Distributions Associated with Failure of Items
and Equipment /20
2.1.1 The Exponential Distribution /20
2.1.2 The Weibull Distribution /25
2.1.3 The Log-Normal Distribution /33
2.1.4 The Gamma Distribution /40
2.1.5 Equipment-Level Prediction Using a Hybrid
Approach /48
2.2 Distributions Used in Equipment and System Modeling /50
2.2.1 The Poisson Distribution as a Modeling Tool/51
2.2.2 The Binomial Distribution as a Modeling Tool/53
2.2.3 The Normal Distribution as a Modeling Tool/56
2.3 Distributions Used for Reliability Demonstration and
Measurement /60
2.3.1 The Poisson Distribution in Demonstration
and Measurement /61
VII
viii Con ten ts
2.3.2 The Weibull Distribution in Demonstration
and Measurement /62
2.3.3 The Gamma Distribution in Demonstration
and Measurement /62
2.3.4 The Chi-Square Distribution in Demonstration
and Measurement /64
2.3.5 The Binomial Distribution in Demonstration
and Measurement /65
2.4 The Relationships Among Distributions /65
3. The Customer's Role in Reliability Programs /69
3.1 How Much Reliability Do We Need? /10
3.1.1 Examining the Need for the Item /10
3.1.2 General Nature of a Requirement /10
3.1.3 Generation of Reliability Requirements /72
3.2 Reliability Warranties in Lieu of Requirements /18
3.2.1 When a Warranty/Guarantee Should be
Considered /19
3.2.2 Composition of a Warranty/Guarantee /79
3.3 Structuring Program Requirements: The Five Factors /81
3.3.1 The Five Factors and the Acquisition Process /82
3.3.2 The Five Factors and Equipment System
Characteristics /84
3.3.3 The Five Factors and Procurement Strategy /85
3.4 Communicating with the Contractor: Specifications
and Standards /92
3.4.1 Transforming General Reliability Program Factors
to Engineering Tasks /93
3.5 Reliability Standards and Handbooks That You Should
Know About /94
3.5.1 Mil-Std-785:" Reliability Program for Systems and
Equipment Development/Production /96
3.5.2 Mil-M-3851O: "General Specifications for Micro
Electronics" /97
3.5.3 Mil-Std-883: "Test Methods and Procedures for
Micro Electronics" /97
3.5.4 Mil-Std-756: "Reliability Modeling and Prediction" /98
3.5.5 Mil-Hdbk-217: "Reliability Prediction of Electronic
Equipment" /99
3.5.6 Mil-Hdbk-338: "Electronic Reliability Design
Handbook" /100
3.5.7 Mil-Std-2164 (EC): "Environmental Stress Screening
Process for Electronic Equipment" /100
Contents IX
3.5.8 DOD-Hdbk-344 (USAF): "Environmental Stress
Screening of Electronic Equipment" /101
3.5.9 Mil-Std-2155 (AS): Failure Reporting Analysis and
Corrective Action System /101
3.5.10 Mil-Std-1629: "Procedures for Performing a Failure
Mode Effects and Criticality Analysis" / 102
3.5.11 Mil-Hdbk-251 : "Reliability/Design Thermal
Applications" / 103
3.5.12 Mil-Std-781:" Reliability Testing for Engineering
Development, Qualifications and Production" / 103
3.5.13 Mil-Hdbk-781: "Reliability Test Methods, Plans
and Environments for Engineering Development,
Qualification and Production" / 103
3.5.14 Mil-Hdbk-189: "Reliability Growth Management" /104
3.5.15 Mil-Std-1521 (USAF): "Program Reviews" /104
3.5.16 Mil-Std-721: "Definition of Terms for Reliability
and Maintainability" / 10 5
3.6 Customer Responsibilities /105
3.6.1 Customer Responsibilities: Preparing for the
Program / 10 5
3.6.2 Customer Responsibilities in the Application of
Mil-Stds /106
3.6.3 Customer Responsibilities Irrespective of Standards
Used /108
3.6.4 Structuring the Reliability Program /108
3.6.5 Customer Responsibilities: Providing Information
and Detail/II 7
3.6.6 Customer Responsibilities to the Customer
Organization /118
4. The Role of the Contractor /Developer in Formulating Reliability
Approaches and Needs /123
4.1 The Reliability Organization: Form and Responsibilities /124
4.2 Reliability Technical Planning: A Developer's View /125
4.2.1 Cycling Constraints: Reliability Multipliers /126
4.2.2 Allowable Downtime: Reliability Multipliers /126
4.2.3 Fault Tolerance: Reliability Multipliers (Functional or
Replicative) /126
4.2.4 Maintenance Allowed: Reliability Multipliers /127
4.2.5 Technology Advances: Reliability Multipliers /128
4.2.6 Integration and Sharing of Resources /128
4.2.7 Use of Higher-Reliability Parts /128
x Contents
4.3 Formulating the Reliability Design/Development
Approach /128
4.4 Correlating the Reliability Program with the System
Engineering Process /130
4.4.1 Demonstration/Validation Phase of Development /131
4.4.2 The Full-Scale Engineering Phase Development /133
4.4.3 The Production Phase of a Development Program /136
4.5 The Role of the Developer/Producer After Contract
Award /137
5. Rudimentary Probabilisitc/Statistical Concepts Used in Performance
of Reliability Program Tasks 1138
5.1 The Mean /138
5.2 A Probability /139
5.3 An Expected Value /139
5.4 An Independent Event /141
5.5 A Conditional Event /141
5.6 Mutually Exclusive Events /141
5.7 The Addition Law for Probabilities /142
5.8 The Multiplication Law for Probabilities /144
5.9 Addition and Multiplication Guides for Distributions /146
5.10 The Tchebychev Inequality /147
6. The Parts Program-What You Should Know, What You CanDo 1149
6.1 Reliability and Quality Interfaces and Effects /150
6.2 Rationale and Use of Part Specifications and Standards /151
6.3 Applying Controls to Enhance Part Reliability and
Quality /155
6.3.1 When Tri-service Standards and Specifications Are Not
Applicable as Controls /156
6.4 Improving the Reliability and Quality of an Existing Part /158
6.5 Dealing with New or Unique Parts /159
6.6 Effects of Part Defects and Tolerance Levels on Assembly,
Quality, and Equipment Reliability /159
6.6.1 Part Defects and the Quality and Reliability of
Assemblies /160
6.6.2 Part Tolerance vs. Assembly Quality and Reliability /167
6.6.3 Using Statistical Design Techniques to Reduce
Rework /174
6.6.4 Part Tolerances and Reliability /194
Contents
XI
6.7 The Parts Program: Things a Reliability Engineering Manager
Should Know /198
6.7.1 Part Selection Criteria /198
6.7.2 Quality Differences Between Mil-Std and Non-Mil-Std
Parts /199
6.7.3 Part Acquisition/Procurement /200
7. Providing a Basis for Detailed Design. The Reliability Block Diagram
and Reliability Apportionment /202
7.1 The Reliability Block Diagram: The Starting Point of Many
Reliability Activities /203
7.2 Reliability Apportionment/ Allocation in the Development
Process /206
7.2.1 What Reliability Apportionment and Allocation Is /206
7.2.2 Reliability Apportionment: The First Cut /207
7.2.3 Reliability Apportionment with Respect to
Criticality /209
7.2.4 Reliability Control, A Key Element in
Apportionment /213
7.2.5 Reliahility Apportionment with Respect to Identified
Engineering Alternatives /214
7.2.6 Reliability Cost/Payoff Approach to
Apportionment /217
8. Reliability Prediction During the Development Process /220
8.1 Initial Reliability Prediction Approaches /222
8.1.1 Extrapolation Approaches to Initial Reliability
Estimation /222
8.2 Intermediate Design-Level Predictions: Module Count
Methods /235
8.3 Intermediate to Detailed Approaches to Prediction. Part Count
Methods /245
8.4 Detailed Reliability Prediction Approaches /253
8.4.1 Detailed Reliability Prediction: A Failure Rate
Approach /253
8.4.2 Detailed Reliability Prediction: Deterministic
Approach /264
8.5 Special Considerations in Predicting Reliability /266
8.5.1 Duty-Cycle Mode Effects on Reliability /266
8.5.2 Multifunction Systems Reliability Prediction /270
8.5.3 Unequal Operating Times Associated with System
Components /272
xii Contents
8.5.4 Accounting for Stresses That Are Mission
Phase-Dependent in Reliability Prediction /275
8.5.5 Accounting for Failure Rates of Nonoperating
Systems /276
8.5.6 Accounting for Operational Influences on
Reliability /282
9. Reliability Analysis and Evaluation of Series-Connected Systems /286
9.1 Mission Reliability Measures Used for Evaluation /286
9.1.1 Components with Exponential Failure
Distributions /288
9.1.2 Components with Weibull Failure Distributions /292
9.2 Evaluating "Mean Time" Measures of Reliability /299
9.2.1 "Mean Time" Measures Associated with an Exponential
Distribution of Failures /299
9.2.2 "Mean Time" Measures Associated with Items with
Wei bull Distributions of Failure /302
9.3 Evaluating Availability Measures of Reliability /304
9.3.1 The System States: What They Are and How They Can
Be Identified /306
9.3.2 Steady-State Availability in General /310
9.3.3 Dynamic Measures Associated with Availability /319
9.3.4 Availability When Maintenance Is Not Performed at
Failure /338
9.4 Combined Measures of Reliability and Availability
Effectiveness /340
10. Reliability Analysis and Evaluation of Redundant or Fault-Tolerant
Systems /343
10.1 Redundant Systems Which Are Not Maintained /345
10.1.1 Full-On Redundancy: The Single-Survivor Subsystem;
Perfect Sensing and Switching /346
10.1.2 Full-On Redundancy: Multiple-Survivor
Subsystem/System; Perfect Sensing and Switching /352
10.1.3 Full-On Redundancy: An Alternate Way of
Understanding and Evaluating Mean Time to First
Failure /355
10.1.4 Full-On Redundancy: Taking Into Account Imperfect
Sensing and Switching /357
10.1.5 Standby Redundancy: The Single-Survivor Subsystem;
Perfect Sensing and Switching /362