Practical and applied hydrogeology

407 Pages·2015·36.84 MB·English

by  Zekâi Şen

PRACTICAL
AND APPLIED
HYDROGEOLOGY
Z Sx
EKÂI EN
Istanbul Technical University
Maslak 34469
Istanbul
Turkey
AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)WALTHAM(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON(cid:129)NEWYORK
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Sen,Zekai.
Practicalandappliedhydrogeology/ZekaiSen,ITUHydraulicsLab.Maslak,Istanbul,Turkey.–Firstedition.
pagescm.
1.Hydrogeology.I.Title.
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Dedication
This bookis dedicated to my newly born grandson.
AliZekâi Şen
Withthe hopethat the content will beusefulto anyone interested
in hydrogeology and groundwater fundamentals.
Preface
I had theoretical scientific information about formulations as end products of complicated
the groundwater problems for more than analytical derivations if these ingredients are
30 years, since then I came across with many provided.Althoughpracticalityofhydrogeolog-
practical questions for solutions in applications ical problems seems to be satisfied through the
for which I found difficulties in answering and ready software, if the content and functionality
convincinggeologists,hydrogeologists,ground- of the program are not appreciated, then how
water hydrologists and engineers, who needed could one write meaningful reports of interpre-
ready,simple,effective,andapplicablepractical tations? Each computer program involves a set
solutions.Thetheoreticalassumptionswerecrit- of logical rules that are hidden in the analytical
icized by clever students and field specialists, formulations and therefore the outputs from
who would care for solutions with minimum thesesoftwaresneedmeaningfulinterpretations,
level of mathematical background. I found that which are not possible without practical expla-
the practicality is possible through physical nations. The purpose of this book is to present
explanations, logical deductions, and rational the principle logical, rational, and conceptual
formulations. In this manner, I also benefited partsforeachproblemandthenthroughsimple
from conflict of opinions and purposeful ques- calculus to arrive at the desired formulations
tionsforpracticalgoalstowardfinalapplication underthelight ofaset of relevant assumptions.
stage in groundwater resources evaluation, When someone is confronted with a problem
assessment, and management. it is necessary to imagine related events, to plan
Due to complicated subsurface geology, the and design the suitable configuration, and then
science of hydrogeology becomes also compli- to come out with a set of deductive statements.
cated for groundwater occurrence, distribution, Sincehydrogeologicalproblemsareverycompli-
exploration, movement, quality variations, cated depending on the subsurface geological
recharges, and managements. Most of those setup, few or several assumptions are made for
who are directly involved in fieldworks for thesimplificationinordertoarriveattheprelim-
hydrogeological applications are not concerned inary solutions. In the literature, there are
withtheanalyticalornumericalsolutions,which numerous publications that expose analytical
are highly mathematical. However, they are mathematical solutions in detail, but conceptual
ready to grasp through the conceptual models, explanation of the models is not available as
whichareeasytoexplain,verbalintheircharac- wide.Inadditiontoimagination,especiallyexpe-
teristics,andsimpleintheirmathematicalbases. rienceprovidesfurtherclarificationsofquestions
Since each mathematical analytical solution has towardtheimprovementoftheexistingmethod-
linguistic fundamentals, valid logical rules and ologies. Logic and experience together indicate
concepts, one can appreciate the mathematical that nowhere in the world aquifers are
ix
x
PREFACE
homogeneousandisotropicandtherearespatial to define the aquifer parameters for ground-
variationsintheaquiferparametersbasedonthe water hydrogeological assessments in a region.
controlvolumescale.Inthegroundwatermove- Inordertorenderthepracticabilityandappli-
menttowardthewellsthecontrolvolume isthe cabilityinhydrogeologicalprojects,asetofcase
depression cone, which expands by time in studies and examples are provided in all chap-
a steadily slowing manner. During the expan- ters after many sections. The most successful
sion, control volume changes and different applied groundwater studies can be achieved
subsurface geological features enter the domain with a team where theoretical, practical, and
ofinfluenceandconsequentlytheaquiferparam- experienced staffincorporatesforeffective solu-
etersshouldalsovaryspatially. tions. I could not complete this work without
After the simple, practical, and conceptual the patience, support, and assistance of my
principles, one can appreciate the key processes wife Fatma Şen.
that play role in the groundwater movement Zekâi Şen
and accordingly the parameters can be defined February 2014
inaparsimoniousmanner.Itisthemainpurpose Erenköy,Istanbul
C H A P T E R
1
Water Science Basic Information
O U T L I N E
1.1 Hydrology (Water Science) Elements 1 1.6 Runoff 31
1.2 Hydrologic Cycle 3 1.7 Groundwater 33
1.3 Rainfall 4 1.8 Climate Change andGround Water 33
1.3.1 Arithmetic Mean Method 7
1.9 Geology and Groundwater 35
1.3.2 ThiessenMethod 7
1.9.1 Geological Shield andShelf 36
1.3.3 IsohyetMethod 8
1.9.2 Quaternary Deposits 36
1.4 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration 15 1.9.2.1 AlluvialFans 37
1.4.1 PenmaneMonteithEquation 17 1.9.2.2 AlluvialFills 37
1.4.2 Practical Evapotranspiration 1.9.2.3 SandDunes(EolianSand) 37
Calculations 19 1.9.2.4 Sabkhahs(Playa) 38
1.4.2.1 PriestleyeTaylorMethod 19 1.9.3 Harrats (Basalts) 38
1.4.2.2 BlaneyeCriddleMethod 20
1.10 Groundwater Use in Petroleum 39
1.4.2.3 Adjusted-PanMethod 20
1.4.2.4 MeyerFormulation 21 References 40
1.4.2.5 HeatBalance 22
1.5 Infiltration 23
1.1 HYDROLOGY (WATER to the atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and
SCIENCE) ELEMENTS hydrosphereleadingtowatermovement,distri-
bution, quality, and environmental aspects.
Hydrologyisthescienceofwateroccurrence, Broadly, it deals also with the physical as well
movement and transport in nature. It gives as chemical relationships. In general, it is con-
weight toward the study of water in the Earth cerned with natural events such as rainfall,
and is concerned with local circulations related runoff, drought, flood and runoff, groundwater
PracticalandAppliedHydrogeology
1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800075-5.00001-7 Copyright(cid:1)2015ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
2
1. WATERSCIENCEBASICINFORMATION
occurrences, their control, prediction, and man- Quantificationandpracticalusesofthewater
agement. On the application side, hydrology relatedtopicsinFigure1.1requirescientificob-
provides basic laws, equations, algorithms, pro- servations, measurements, investigations, and
cedures, and modeling of these events for the evaluations of various water balance compo-
practical use of human comfort. It also covers nents. Hence, a multitude of disciplines (geol-
the practical and field applications for water re- ogy, hydrogeology, hydrology, geophysics,
sources assessments with simple rational calcu- geochemistry, hydraulics), and accordingly,
lations leading toward proper managements. different specialists are involved in any large-
Hydrologyrelatedtopicsthatreflectthecontent scale groundwater study.
of this book are given in Figure 1.1 from engi- There are specific scientists who are con-
neeringandearthsciencesaspectspointofview. cernedindividuallywitheachoneofthecompo-
Surfacewaterorgroundwaterstudiesrequire nents. For instance, hydrologists pay a great
basic hydrological information as for rainfall attention in studying the physical occurrences
assessment, evapotranspiration, infiltration, of the source components to the groundwater
runoff, subsurface flow, and their modeling system; geologists are mainly interested in the
aspects for practical engineering, agricultural, rock composition of the groundwater reservoir
irrigation, and hydrogeological applications. domain. The names groundwater hydrologist
Hydrogeology is the part of hydrology that and geohydrologist are used synonymously
deals with the occurrence, movement, and and they are more interested in the source
qualityofwaterbeneaththeEarth’ssurface.Hy- component of groundwater system and less
drogeologydealswithwaterincomplexsubsur- worried about the geological composition of
faceenvironments,andtherefore,itscomplexity the reservoir. Their main research methods are
asascienceismorethansurfacehydrology.Itis mainly water abstraction modeling studies.
concernedwithpermeablegeologicalformations Hydrogeologists are more concerned with the
orgroupofformationsthatbearwaterinsatura- geological setup of the groundwater reservoirs
tion and bound to yield significant quantities withlessemphasisonthesourceandabstraction
throughwellsandsprings.Aswillbeexplained except springs. Their research methods are
in Chapter 2, void ratio and hydraulic parame- mainly the field works in the forms of data as
tersoftheseformationsareamongthemostsig- direct measurements for quantitative evalua-
nificantfactorsthatreflectthewaterstoringand tions (pumping tests, piezometric level, joint
transmittingpropertiesofgeologicalformations. and fracture measurements, etc.) and water
Groundwater hydrology
Engineering Earth sciences
Hydraulics Management Hydrogeology Hydrochemistry
FIGURE 1.1 Hydrologyrelatedtopics.
3
1.2 HYDROLOGICCYCLE
samplecollectionsforthequalitativestudies.At for the rock domain (geology) and it is the
the end, with all these information availability, main environment that will be dealt with in
hydrogeologists prepare a detailed report for this book from the water storage, movement,
thegroundwaterreservoirconcerningthepossi- and quality and management points of view.
bility of exploitable groundwater storage, flow Hydrosphereincludesenvironmentsofsolewa-
rates and quality classifications for domestic, ter such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and ground-
agricultural and industrial usages. Finally, hy- water reservoirs. The water in Earth circulates
draulic engineers are concentrated on the engi- among these environments from the hydro-
neering part of the system in Figure 1.1. sphere (oceans) to atmosphere and then to the
Integrated groundwater management studies lithosphereduetosolarenergy(SE)(Figure1.2).
cannot be achieved without cooperation among The circulation includes complex and interde-
the aforementioned specialists. pendent processes such as evaporation (EV),
This book is prepared to guide the practical transpiration (TR), evapotranspiration (ET),
workers,andtherefore,subjectmatterisnotpre- plant water (PW), precipitation (PR), and
sentedinadetailedtheoreticalmanner.Howev- groundwater recharge (RE).
er,atplacesofrelevancesomedetailisprovided Thehydrologicalcycleinnatureisassumedto
first linguistically and then the relevant mathe- startfromfreewaterbodies(oceans,seas,lakes,
matical expressions are derived. andrivers)throughtheevaporationprocessand
closesontoitselfafterstagesofcloudformation,
rainfall,runoff,surface water,and groundwater
1.2 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE storages (Figure 1.3).
One of the basic elements is the precipitation
In general, hydrologic cycle is the combina- (rainfall) in humid (arid and semiarid) regions.
tionofallpossiblewaterwaysbetweentheatmo- There are many techniques in geography and
sphere,lithosphere,biosphere,andhydrosphere meteorology disciplines for the assessments
in addition to specific ways within each sphere. andevaluationsofrainfallamounts,butitsprac-
Living creatures are dependent on some gases, tical evaluation and application are within the
water, nutrients, and solids that are available in surface hydrology domain. The part of hydro-
nature rather abundantly in finely balanced logical cycle within the lithosphere that trans-
quantities for their survivals. The most precious forms the precipitation into the groundwater is
commodities are the air (atmosphere), water shown in Figure 1.4.
(hydrosphere), earth (lithosphere), and energy Depending on the surface and subsurface
(especiallysolarenergy).Fromthegeologicalre- geological setup some part of the precipitation
cords it seems that about 1.5 billion years ago (PR)crossestheEarth’ssurfacethroughtheinfil-
free oxygen first appeared in the atmosphere in tration (IN) process whereby the water moves
appreciable quantities (Harvey, 1982). The downward due to the gravitational force. Some
appearance of life was dependent essentially on part of the infiltration water remains near in
the availability of oxygen but once sufficient the subsurface as soil moisture, the remaining
amount was accumulated for green plants to part advances deeper into the earth through
develop, then photosynthesis process liberated percolation (PE) process, which ends up within
more oxygen into the atmosphere. the groundwater reservoir, where groundwater
Intheatmosphere,waterisinthevaporform flow (GF) takes place. Part of the precipitation
andmixedwithvariousgasses.Biosphereisthe occurs as runoff (RO) on the Earth’s surface.
plantworldthatisentirelydependentonwater. Groundwater reservoir is exploited through
However, the lithosphere is the general name wells by abstraction (AB).
4
1. WATERSCIENCEBASICINFORMATION
SUun
SEE
SE Atmosphere
EEV PR ET PR TRR SE
RRE
Hydrosphere Lithosphere
PW
Biosphere
FIGURE1.2 Waterenvironments.SE,solarenergy;EV,evaporation;TR,transpiration;ET,evapotranspiration;PW,plant
water;PR,precipitation;RE,groundwaterrecharge.(ModifiedfromŞen(1995).)
Wind
Cloud Rainfall
SUN
Cooling
Intercep(cid:2)on
Evapotranspira(cid:2)on
Evapora(cid:2)on Depression
Spring
FIGURE 1.3 Hydrologicalcyclecomponents.
1.3 RAINFALL of all water resources, and especially, ground-
waterreservoirsarereplenishedaftereachstorm
Rainfall is composed of water drops that rainfall. For practical applications, the quantity
reach the Earth surface from clouds after of water that reaches the Earth’s surface from
condensed atmospheric vapor. It is the source the clouds is important and it is recorded in
5
1.3 RAINFALL
AB groundwateryieldistheearlypartofthewet
PR seasonwhenthe rainfallis high but the
RO IN vegetation has not grown sufficiently to
protect the surface (Şen, 2008).
Soil moisture 6. Weather patterns in manyregions are most
often underthe effect of small-scale
PE orographic and convectiverainfall
occurrencesratherthanoccasionallarge-scale
GF Groundwater reservoir frontalrainfalls.
Spatial rainfall variability is directly related
Litosphere tothelocalandregionaltopography.Athighel-
evations (escarpments, cliffs, or high moun-
FIGURE 1.4 Subsurface hydrologic cycle parts. PR,
precipitation; IN, infiltration; PE, percolation; GF, ground- tains) orographic rainfall events occur. For
waterflow;RO,runoff;AB,abstraction. instance, along the Red Sea coastal plain (Tiha-
mah), there are sudden escarpments rising to
3000m above mean sea level (MSL) over
height per duration per area. In practice, it is 50e150km distance from the coastal area (Al-
expressed frequently as mm/sec, which is the Sefryet al.,2004). Moistureladenairmovesto-
rainfallintensity.Thechangeofintensityduring ward inlands, rises and cools in the meantime
the storm rainfall event provides significant in- (Figure 1.5).
formation for many applications including Atanyplacethemostsignificanttreatmentof
groundwater recharge. The most important fea- therainfalldatainwaterresources,andparticu-
tures canbe summarized as follows. larly in groundwater and hydrogeology studies
are givenin the following points.
1. Especially in arid and semiaridregions
rainfall has temporally and spatiallyerratic 1. If time series of precipitation records are
behaviors. available at a station then onecan search for
2. Individualstorm rainfalltotal can be very meteorological wet (W) and dry (D) spell
highinmanycases;itmayevenfarexceedthe features(duration,intensityandmagnitude),
mean annual rainfall. Consequencesof such which play significant roles in flood,
rainfall events may lead to occasional floods
and flash floods. Afternoon
Morning
3. Rainfall intensities canbe very high,and
consequently groundwaterrecharge can be Cloud Cloud
increased greatly either naturally orin arid
Condensation
and semiaridregions artificially (Chapter 4).
Wind
4. The amount of groundwater recharge Rainfall
Escarpment
decreasesby the scalingeffects of rainfall
impact, but increases runoff transport
Evaporation
capacity, and hence,debrisflow,
Tihamat
sedimentation, and deposition.
5. Due to the seasonal patternof the rainfall,
erosion,sediment,andgroundwaterrecharge Red Sea
yields followsimilar pattern, where the most
valuableperiod for erosion, sediment, and FIGURE 1.5 Orographicrainfallmechanisms.