Powder Metallurgy Data: Part 1: Metals and Magnets PDF
Preview Powder Metallurgy Data: Part 1: Metals and Magnets
Landolt-Börnstein Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology New Series / Editor in Chief: W. Martienssen Group VIII: Advanced Materials and Technologies Volume 2 Materials Subvolume A Powder Metallurgy Data Part 1 Metals and Magnets Editors: P. Beiss, R. Ruthardt, H. Warlimont Authors: V. Behrens, P. Beiss, B. Commandeur, J.J. Dunkley, H. Harada, N. Horiishi, K. Hummert, P. Jansson, G. Kientopf, D. Lupton, B. Mais, H. Müller, R. Müller, T. Murase, H. Nagel, P. Neumann, R. Ruthardt, L. Schneider, C. Spiegelhauer, S. Takaragi, H. Warlimont, W. Weise ISSN 1619-4802 (Advanced Materials and Technologies) ISBN 3-540-42942-5 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik, Neue Serie Editor in Chief: W. Martienssen Vol. VIII/2A1: Editors: P. Beiss, R. Ruthardt, H. Warlimont At head of title: Landolt-Börnstein. Added t.p.: Numerical data and functional relationships in science and technology. Tables chiefly in English. Intended to supersede the Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen by H. Landolt and R. Börnstein of which the 6th ed. began publication in 1950 under title: Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und Technik. Vols. published after v. 1 of group I have imprint: Berlin, New York, Springer-Verlag Includes bibliographies. 1. Physics--Tables. 2. Chemistry--Tables. 3. Engineering--Tables. I. Börnstein, R. (Richard), 1852-1913. II. Landolt, H. (Hans), 1831-1910. III. Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen. IV. Title: Numerical data and functional relationships in science and technology. QC61.23 502'.12 62-53136 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution act under German Copyright Law. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York a member of BertelsmannSpringer Science+Business Media GmbH © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Product Liability: The data and other information in this handbook have been carefully extracted and evaluated by experts from the original literature. Furthermore, they have been checked for correctness by authors and the editorial staff before printing. Nevertheless, the publisher can give no guarantee for the correctness of the data and information provided. In any individual case of application, the respective user must check the correctness by consulting other relevant sources of information. Cover layout: Erich Kirchner, Heidelberg Typesetting: Authors and Redaktion Landolt-Börnstein, Darmstadt Printing and Binding: WB-Druck, Rieden/Allgäu SPIN: 10689123 63/3020 - 5 4 3 2 1 0 – Printed on acid-free paper Preface Powder Metallurgy Data is the first among a series of volumes on technical data of materials predominantly used in engineering. To this end Springer - Verlag decided to publish the new Group VIII Landolt - Börnstein Series with the title Advanced Materials and Technologies. As in all its history the scope of Landolt - Börnstein data collections is the authoritative coverage of critically evaluated and reviewed data on physical, chemical and technical properties, including information available from technical standards, industry catalogues and brochures, conference proceedings, research reports and scientific journals. Powder metallurgical technologies and material properties have been thoroughly treated in the 6th edition of Landolt - Börnstein some 35 years ago in Volume IV/2b in German language. Yet, many changes in technology and numerous material innovations suggested a new approach instead of an update. As with so many other production technologies too, powder metallurgy is not a homogenous set of equal processing steps for each and every material, but a collective term to denote a vast variety of totally different production methods in powder manufacturing and powder processing. Even within a single material system like steel the multitude of methods to manufacture, shape and consolidate powder cannot be surveyed by a single individual any more. The reason for this is the relative youth of the technology, its fast growth during the last three decades and its immense flexibility which makes it a small volume problem solver not noticed by the broader engineering community. For many applications powder metallurgy (PM) is the only way to economically produce so called impossible materials, e. g. homogenous fine grained immiscible materials, nanomaterials, highly alloyed segregation free tool steels or nickel base alloys, functionally graded materials, bonded hard materials or rare earth hard magnets, just to name few. The border lines in defining powder metallurgy are drawn pragmatically by unwritten conventions: Powdered materials and their processing for sprayed surface coatings are for example generally not attributed to PM, spray forming of performs for semifinished products is related to PM. This view will certainly be perceived as inconsistent by readers and users of the present volume as far as they are not familiar with the technology, yet, this perspective has historically developed as the two disciplines are covered by different professional societies. Other thematic inconsistencies will be noticed by those who search unsuccessfully for data that could not be included here. Because of the complexity of the topic, at a very early stage it became obvious that no single person would be willing or able to undertake the task of issuing Powder Metallurgy Data. Therefore, the Joint Committee on Powder Metallurgy formed by five German professional societies (DGM, DKG, VDEh, FPM and VDI - W) tried to motivate the authors for a collective approach, each of whom is an expert in his field. This was the only possibility to gather the widespread information which is contained in scientific journals only to a very minor percentage. The majority of the data was available only through conference proceedings, company literature and the internationally very different standards on PM materials. For several groups of materials, particularly the newer developments and processes that are practiced exclusively at a single location, it was not possible to find authors, be it that data could not be systematically compiled because they are not available or be it that companies were unable to permit the publication of internal information. Some authors finished their manuscripts very fast, other chapters took much longer time. For this reason, the end of the literature evaluation varies from contribution to contribution. This leaves deficiencies that the editors are well aware of hoping that the users will forgive the lack of information in certain areas when considering what has been achieved in other areas. During the preparation of the manuscripts the collected data turned out to be so voluminous that it became necessary to divide the material in the two subvolumes VIII / 2 A 1 and VIII / 2 A 2. The present subvolume VIII / 2 A 1 contains information on powders and shaping technologies, semifinished products and structural parts as well as more functional materials for friction, electrical contact or magnetic applications or materials where the porosity is technically exploited. In agreement with the high value added in this industry branch, the materials for structural parts have more extensively been treated in the literature than many other PM products. In the light of the few futile efforts to set up a new standard in the field of PM literature the editors are the more obliged to those who volunteered as authors and achieved a density of hard core information that will long stay unsurpassed. Aachen, August 2002 The Editors VI Contributors Editors P. Beiss Professur und Institut für Werkstoffkunde Rheinisch Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH) Aachen D-52062 Aachen, Germany R. Ruthardt Deutsche Gesellschaft für Materialkunde e.V. Außenstelle Hanau Adalbert-Stifter-Str. 19 D-63452 Hanau H. Warlimont Leibniz-Institut für Festkörper- und Werkstoffforschung Dresden D-01069 Dresden, Germany Authors V. Behrens AMI Doduco GmbH Im Altgefäll 12 D-75181 Pforzheim, Germany P. Beiss Professur und Institut für Werkstoffkunde Rheinisch Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH) Aachen D-52062 Aachen, Germany B. Commandeur PEAK Werkstoff GmbH Siebeneicker Str. 235 D-42553 Velbert, Germany J. J. Dunkley Atomising Systems Ltd Unit 8, Distribution Centre Meadowhall Sheffield S9 1EW UK H. Harada 3730-30 Higashikaya Fukaya Saitama 366-0041 Japan Contributors VII N. Horiishi Toda Kogyo Branch World Trade Center 23F 2-4-1 Hamamatsucho Minato Tokyo 105-6123 Japan K. Hummert Powder Light Metals GmbH Am Wiesenbusch 2 D-45966 Gladbeck, Germany P. Jansson Höganäs AB S-263 83 Höganäs, Sweden G. Kientopf Böhler-Uddeholm Deutschland GmbH Hansaallee 321 D-40549 Düsseldorf, Germany D. Lupton W.C. Heraeus GmbH & Co. KG Heraeusstr. 12-14 D-63450 Hanau, Germany B. Mais ECKA Granulate MicroMet GmbH Hovestr. 46a D-20539 Hamburg, Germany H. Müller Wieland-Werke AG Graf-Arco-Str. 36 D-89079 Ulm R. Müller Schunk GmbH Prüflabor “Friedrich Eisenkolb” D-06502 Thale, Germany T. Murase TDK Fundamental Material R/L 570-4 Matugashita Minamihashima Narita, Chiba 286-8588 Japan H. Nagel Consulting and Design Engineer Wedelstr. 38 D-44265 Dortmund VIII Contributors P. Neumann GKN Sinter Metal Filters GmbH D-42469 Radevormwald, Germany R. Ruthardt Deutsche Gesellschaft für Materialkunde e.V. Außenstelle Hanau Adalbert-Stifter-Str. 19 D-63452 Hanau L. Schneider Fraunhofer Institut für Angewandte Materialforschung Außenstelle Dresden D-01277 Dresden, Germany C. Spiegelhauer Det Danske Stalvaiseverk A/S DK-3300 Frederiksvaerk S. Takaragi Toda Kogyo Otake Works 1-4 Meijishinnkai Otake Hiroshima 739-0652 Japan H. Warlimont Leibniz-Institut für Festkörper- und Werkstoffforschung Dresden D-01069 Dresden, Germany W. Weise Juchaczweg 14 D-12351 Berlin, Germany Landolt-Börnstein Editorial Office Gagernstr. 8, D-64283 Darmstadt, Germany fax: +49 (6151) 171760 e-mail: [email protected] Internet http://www.landolt-boernstein.com Helpdesk e-mail: [email protected] Contents IX VIII/2A Powder Metallurgy Data Part 1: Metals and Magnets Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 2 Metal powders ......................................................................2-1 2.1 Introduction.......................................................................2-1 2.2 Production technology..............................................................2-2 2.2.1 Oxide reduction..................................................................2-2 2.2.2 Electrolysis......................................................................2-4 2.2.2.1 Introduction....................................................................2-4 2.2.2.2 Electrodeposition of copper powder – basic considerations.............................2-4 2.2.2.3 Electrodeposition of copper powder – industrial realisation.............................2-6 2.2.2.4 Further processing steps..........................................................2-7 2.2.3 Thermal decomposition............................................................2-8 2.2.4 Atomisation .....................................................................2-9 2.2.4.1 Basic considerations............................................................2-10 2.2.4.1.1 Performance of atomisers......................................................2-10 2.2.4.1.2 Particle size distribution parameters .............................................2-10 2.2.4.1.3 Sphericity or particle shape ....................................................2-10 2.2.4.1.4 Purity ......................................................................2-11 2.2.4.1.5 Other powder parameters ......................................................2-12 2.2.4.1.6 Yield.......................................................................2-12 2.2.4.1.7 Productivity.................................................................2-12 2.2.4.1.8 Flexibility...................................................................2-13 2.2.4.1.9 Robustness..................................................................2-13 2.2.4.2 Gas and air atomisation .........................................................2-13 2.2.4.2.1 Efficiency of gas (and air) atomisers.............................................2-13 2.2.4.2.2 Basic types of gas atomiser.....................................................2-14 2.2.4.2.3 Novel possibilities............................................................2-19 2.2.4.2.4 Advanced gas atomisation technology............................................2-20 2.2.4.3 Water atomisation..............................................................2-23 2.2.4.3.1 Basic types of water atomiser...................................................2-23 2.2.4.3.2 Performance.................................................................2-24 2.2.4.3.3 Industrial production..........................................................2-25 2.2.4.4 Economics of atomisation .......................................................2-27 2.2.5 Alloying methods................................................................2-30 2.3 Powder characterisation............................................................2-30 2.4 Metal powder types and data........................................................2-32 2.4.1 Iron base powders ...............................................................2-32 2.4.2 Copper base powders.............................................................2-37 2.5 References for 2 ..................................................................2-40 3 Forming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3.2 Uniaxial compaction in rigid dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3.2.1 Die compaction of powders with green strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3.2.2 Newer developments and emerging technologies in die compaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 3.2.3 Die compaction with consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 X Contents 3.2.4 Powder forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 3.3 Isostatic and pseudoisostatic compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14 3.3.1 Cold isostatic pressing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14 3.3.2 Hot isostatic pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17 3.3.3 Pseudo-HIP processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19 3.3.3.1 STAMP process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-19 3.3.3.2 Consolidation by atmospheric pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-20 3.3.3.3 Rapid omnidirectional compaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21 3.3.3.4 Ceracon process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-22 3.3.3.5 Ceramic mold process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23 3.4 Forming of binder treated powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24 3.4.1 Metal injection molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24 3.4.2 Binder assisted extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-26 3.4.3 Slip casting and wet powder processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-27 3.4.4 Tape Casting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28 3.5 Spray forming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28 3.5.1 Billets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28 3.5.2 Claddings and ring shapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-29 3.5.3 Preforms, slabs and strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 3.6 Continuous forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 3.6.1 Powder rolling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30 3.6.2 Conform extrusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31 3.7 Gravity sintering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-32 3.8 Billet processing and hot working. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-33 3.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-35 3.10 References for 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-36 4 Semifinished products................................................................4-1 4.1 Hot isostatically pressed tool steels....................................................4-1 4.1.1 Heat treatment ...................................................................4-2 4.1.2 Alloying effects..................................................................4-6 4.1.3 Chemical composition .............................................................4-9 4.1.4 Microstructure..................................................................4-13 4.1.5 Mechanical properties............................................................4-16 4.1.6 Physical properties...............................................................4-26 4.1.7 References for 4.1 ...............................................................4-34 4.2 Spray forming....................................................................4-43 4.2.1 Copper alloys...................................................................4-44 4.2.1.1 Materials for sliding applications .................................................4-45 4.2.1.2 Machinable materials...........................................................4-47 4.2.1.3 High strength materials .........................................................4-48 4.2.1.4 Anisotropy....................................................................4-50 4.2.2. Aluminum Alloys...............................................................4-52 4.2.2.1 High strength alloys (7xxx series).................................................4-54 4.2.2.2 Elevated temperature alloys (2xxx series) ..........................................4-55 4.2.2.3 Wear resistant alloys (4xxx series)................................................4-56 4.2.3 Tool steels .....................................................................4-57 4.2.4 References for 4.2 ...............................................................4-60 5. Structural mass production parts.......................................................5-1 5.1 Introduction.......................................................................5-1 5.2 Manufacturing route................................................................5-1 5.3 Iron and steel......................................................................5-3 Contents XI 5.3.1 Raw materials....................................................................5-3 5.3.2 Data evaluation ..................................................................5-4 5.3.3 Elastic properties.................................................................5-7 5.3.4 Hardness and tensile properties ....................................................5-10 5.3.4.1 Unalloyed iron ................................................................5-14 5.3.4.2 Binary alloys..................................................................5-14 5.3.4.3 Ternary alloys.................................................................5-15 5.3.4.4 Quaternary alloys..............................................................5-16 5.3.4.5 Higher order alloys.............................................................5-17 5.3.5 Impact Energy .................................................................5-124 5.3.6 Fatigue strength................................................................5-136 5.3.6.1 Effect of density in the as-sintered condition.......................................5-138 5.3.6.2 Stress concentrations ..........................................................5-157 5.3.6.3 Effect of heat treatments .......................................................5-159 5.3.6.4 Effect of mean stress ..........................................................5-160 5.3.6.5 Miscellaneous relationships.....................................................5-167 5.3.6.6 Rolling contact fatigue.........................................................5-169 5.3.7 Thermophysical properties.......................................................5-171 5.3.7.1 Thermal expansion and density..................................................5-172 5.3.7.2 Specific heat.................................................................5-174 5.3.7.3 Thermal conductivity..........................................................5-176 5.3.7.4 Thermal diffusivity............................................................5-179 5.4 Non-ferrous materials.............................................................5-181 5.4.1 Copper and copper alloys........................................................5-181 5.4.2 Aluminum alloys...............................................................5-187 5.5 Summary.......................................................................5-189 5.6 References for 5 .................................................................5-190 6 Metal injection moulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6.2 Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 6.2.0 Process outline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 6.2.1 Powder and feedstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 6.2.1.1 Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 6.2.1.2 Binder systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 6.2.1.3 Feedstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 6.2.2 Moulding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7 6.2.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7 6.2.2.2 Moulding equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8 6.2.2.3 Requirements and possibilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 6.2.2.4 Moulding conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13 6.2.3 Debinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14 6.2.4 Sintering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16 6.2.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16 6.2.4.2 Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17 6.2.4.3 Sinter Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17 6.2.5 Final treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19 6.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20 6.3.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20 6.3.2 Tolerances and criteria of MIM processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-23 6.3.3 MIM defects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24 6.4 Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-25 6.5 Comparison of technological alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-28 6.6 References for 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-32 XII Contents 7 Powder metallurgical filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7.2 Materials and production of metal filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7.2.1 Bronze powder products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7.2.2 Stainless steel and nickel base powder products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7.2.3 Stainless steel fiber products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7.3 Characterization of metallic filtration materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7.3.1 Mechanical strength and density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 7.3.2 Permeability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 7.3.3. Average CCE pore diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5 7.3.4 Bubble test pore size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5 7.3.5 Pore size distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5 7.3.6 Filtration efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6 7.4 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6 7.5 Tables for 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8 7.6 Figures for 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-22 7.7 References for 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-24 8 Friction materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8.2 Raw materials used in the production of friction materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8.2.1 Base materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 8.2.1 Solid state lubricants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 8.2.3 Friction modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 8.3 Production methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 8.3.1 Pressing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 8.3.2 Spreading techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 8.4 Properties and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 8.4.1 Friction material requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 8.4.2 Methods of friction testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 8.4.3 Applications under dry condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 8.4.4 Railway applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10 8.4.5 Applications under wet conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12 8.5 References for 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15 9 Magnetic materials...................................................................9-1 9.1 Introduction.......................................................................9-1 9.2 Soft magnetic sintered and composite materials..........................................9-3 9.2.1 Introduction .....................................................................9-3 9.2.2 Sintered soft magnetic materials.....................................................9-3 9.2.2.1 Sintered soft magnetic iron .......................................................9-5 9.2.2.2 Sintered soft magnetic iron/phosphorous............................................9-8 9.2.2.3 Sintered soft magnetic iron/silicon................................................9-13 9.2.2.4 Sintered soft magnetic iron/silicon/phosphorous.....................................9-15 9.2.2.5 Sintered soft magnetic iron/tin/phosphorous ........................................9-16 9.2.2.6 Sintered soft magnetic iron/nickel.................................................9-17 9.2.2.7 Sintered soft magnetic iron/ chromium.............................................9-18 9.2.2.8 Sintered soft magnetic iron/cobalt.................................................9-19 9.2.2.9 Processing operations...........................................................9-20 9.2.2.10 Applications .................................................................9-22 9.2.3 Composite soft magnetic materials..................................................9-23 9.2.3.1 Soft magnetic iron composites for low to medium frequency...........................9-25 9.2.3.1.1 Applications.................................................................9-33 9.2.3.2 Soft magnetic composites for medium to high frequency ..............................9-34
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