Poverty and Brain Development During Childhood: An Approach from Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience

176 Pages·2009·10.547 MB·English

by  Sebastian J. Lipina, Jorge A. Colombo

P o v e r t y a n d
B r a i n D e v e l o p m e n t
D u r i n g C h i l d h o o d
Poverty and Brain Development During Childhood: An Approach From Cognitive
Psychology and Neuroscience, by S. J. Lipina and J. A. Colombo
Copyright © 2009 American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.
P o v e r t y a n d
B r a i n D e v e l o p m e n t
D u r i n g C h i l d h o o d
A N A P P R O A C H F R O M C O G N I T I V E
P S Y C H O L O G Y A N D N E U R O S C I E N C E
S e b a s t i a n J . L i p i n a
J o r g e A . C o l o m b o
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
WASHINGTON, DC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Lipina, Sebastian J.
Poverty and brain development during childhood : an approach from cognitive
psychology and neuroscience / Sebastian J. Lipina and Jorge A. Colombo,
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-4338-0445-8
ISBN-10: 1-4338-0445-X
1. Child development deviations. 2. Poverty—Psychological aspects. 3. Brain—Growth.
4. Developmental neurophysiology. 5. Cognitive neuroscience. I. Colombo, Jorge A.
II. Title.
RJ135.L57 2009
362.198'92—dc22 2008044360
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record is available from the British Library.
Printed in the United States of America
First Edition
H U M A N B R A I N
D E V E L O P M E N T SERIES
Educating the Human Brain
Michael I. Posner and Mary K. Rothbart
Poverty and Brain Development During Childhood: An Approach From
Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience
Sebastian J. Lipina and Jorge A. Colombo
C O N T E N T S
List of Tables and Figures ix
Foreword xi
Overview 3
Chapter 1. Conceptualization and Measurement of Poverty.... 11
Chapter 2. Experimental Models: Effects of Physical and Social
Privation on Brain Development 31
Chapter 3. Effects of Poverty on Development I: Health,
Educational, and Psychometric Perspectives 51
Chapter 4. Effects of Poverty on Development II:
Cognitive Neuroscience Perspectives 75
Chapter 5. Intervention Programs 93
Chapter 6. Contributions to Public Policy 121
References 135
Index 163
About the Authors 171
vu
L I S T O F T A B L E S A N D F I G U R E S
TABLE
Table 4.1. Studies on Poverty Modulation of Neurocognitive
Systems by Noble, Farah, and Colleagues 82
FIGURES
Figure 1.1. Percentage of Disadvantaged Children Under
5 Years by Country (2004) 14
Figure 1.2. Percentage of People Living on Less Than
US$1 per Day, by World Area, in 1998 23
Figure 2.1. Stages of Brain Development and Windows of
Vulnerability 33
Figure 2.2. Superior (Top) and Lateral (Bottom) Views of Main
Human Brain Lobes and Association Cortices 36
Figure 2.3. Frontal Gray Matter, Parietal Gray Matter, and
Temporal Gray Matter Volumes 39
Figure 2.4. Rearing Conditions in Different Experimental
Groups 43
Figure 2.5. Maximum Delay Reached in Spatial Delayed
Response Task 48
Figure 3.1. Pathways From Poverty to Poor Child
Development 53
IX
Figure 3.2. Percentage of Children With Poor Language
Development by Number of Cumulative Risks
Measured at Birth 54
Figure 3.3. Graph Depicting the Age X Income Interaction
for Acute Childhood Respiratory Illnesses 57
Figure 4.1. Perseverative Error Performance in the
A-Not-B Task 79
Figure 4.2. Nonword Reading, Single Word Reading, and Passage
Comprehension Plotted Against Phonological
Awareness 86
Figure 4.3. Relationship Between Activity in Left Fusiform
Regions and Interest and Phonological Awareness
Across Socioeconomic Status 89
Figure 5.1. Conceptual Model of How Interventions Can Affect
Early Child Development 94
Figure 5.2. Intervention Impacts of High/Scope Perry Preschool
Study at 40 102
Figure 5.3. Attentional Training Effects Across Age 110
Figure 5.4. Contrasts of the Four Calculation Conditions
Against Baseline and Contrasts Between
Calculation Conditions 116
Figure 5.5. Posttraining Scores in Flexible Item Selection
Task of Trained and Control Groups 118
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
F O R E W O R D
This book is a wake-up call addressed to scientists and policymakers.
The poor children of the world, particularly in the developing world, are at
risk. The risk is not only for the clear economic and health problems of being
poor but also that their brains will fail to develop to their full potential. As
this volume points out, the risk from multiple influences of systemic poverty
is that these children will suffer not only from loss of opportunity but from
poor development of their nervous systems. Although it is not easy to disen
tangle the influences of malnutrition, abuse, health, low verbal input, and
sensory deprivation as potential causes of deficits in brain development, to
gether they clearly take a toll in reduced potential from which many chil
dren are unable to recover despite evidence for brain plasticity in later years.
Most scientists in the developed world are unfamiliar with the situation
confronting the poor in underdeveloped countries. This book could help rem
edy that lack of understanding and lead to more concerted efforts to provide
improved conditions for the world's poor. In recent years, the U.S. public has
begun to realize the consequences of a poor start in education. However poorly
implemented, the goal of No Child Left Behind is to provide good education
for every child.
Chapter 5 of this volume reviews efforts to develop interventions that
could reach large numbers of poor children. Although no one program seems
to fit all, the authors extract some of the principles needed for successful
interventions. In chapter 6, they enumerate what public policy changes
would be required to implement the interventions reviewed in the previ
ous chapter.
As the authors recognize, the connections are distressingly weak be
tween the research described in chapter 2, which deals with brain changes in
development, much from nonhuman animal research; that described in chap
ter 4, which discusses efforts by cognitive neuroscience researchers to delin-
XI
eate the mental operations most influenced by poverty; and the science and
policy surrounding interventions discussed in chapters 5 and 6. They point
out that much research is needed to elaborate these connections and show in
specific terms how the various forms of deprivation influence neural mecha
nisms so that the most likely remedy could be determined. I was surprised
that the most powerful and sweeping deficit seems to be the deficit in chil
dren hearing their own language spoken. This is also the easiest to remedy
with noninvasive interventions: Parents can initiate speech to their children
in the earliest months of life, incorporating positive statements in addition
to what corrective language is needed to direct their child's behavior.
Strong scientific evidence exists that speech directed by humans to
ward infants even before the age that the child begins to speak (e.g., 7 to 10
months) can shape phonemic structure,1,2 together with the evidence that
these changes can be monitored with simple behavioral and electronic as
says, provides a basis for training parents to present this input. This kind of
intervention is one basis for the Harlem Children's Zone parent college.3
Evidence also shows that the extent of parent language directed toward chil
dren is correlated with vocabulary, literacy, and success in school.
It was equally surprising to me that measures of executive control (self-
regulation) were not as strongly related to later success as I would have thought.
Nonetheless, this also is an area where noninvasive intervention through
parents or preschool can be implemented, as is pointed out in chapter 5.
These two surprises suggest how important a role summaries of wide-ranging
research, such as those provided by this volume, can have in guiding how
best to direct our research and policy efforts in future years.
In chapter 5, the authors deal with the results of intervention efforts,
particularly the Head Start program in the United States. They suggest that
classroom exercises built on models of cognitive function (e.g., Vygotsky or
Montessori) may be the basis for establishing improved preschool perfor
mance that can have influence later in life. They also discuss experimental
efforts based on specific neural models that influence attention, literacy, and
numeracy. It remains to be seen if the large-scale classroom demonstrations
based on overall views of child learning and the targeted improvements found
in laboratory studies can be synthesized into a strong theory-based interven
tion strategy appropriate for each child.
In the final chapter, the authors provide some suggestions for
policymakers. The mood for such actions is promising. For example, Barack
Obama gave a speech in Washington, DC, on urban poverty, citing the Harlem
'Kuhl, P. K., Stevens, E., Hayashi, A., Deguchi, T., Kiritani, S., & Iverson, P. (2006). Infants show a
facilitation effect for native language phonetic perception between 6 and 12 months. Developmental
Science, 9(2), F13-F21.
2Werker, J. F., Gilbert, J. H. V., Humphrey, K., & Tees, R. C. (1981). Developmental aspects of cross-
language speech-perception: Child Development, 52(1), 349-355.
3Tough, P. (2008). Whatever it takes. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
XII FOREWORD
Children's Zone as an effective model for improving urban neighborhoods
and education. As president, he announced, he would replicate the model to
20 other cities. Staff would be trained, communities would engage in plan
ning, and the federal government would pick up half the tab, with the bal
ance sought from private agencies and supporters. He admitted it would cost
"a few billion dollars a year," but to do nothing at all, he added, would be
unacceptable.4 This volume shows that the problems present in the United
States and throughout the developed world are dwarfed by the even larger
problems and opportunities presented by the poor in developing countries.
The way in which even modest input from science energized the Harlem
Children's Zone may, along with this volume, provide impetus for new re
search designed to produce change on a worldwide scale.
Michael I. Posner
Series Editor
^Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: Changing the odds for urban America. (2007, July 18). Retrieved
December 29, 2008, from http://www.barackobama.com/2007/07/18/
remarks_of_senator_barack_obam_19.php
FOREWORD xiii