poverty alleviation through tourism?

263 Pages·2015·4.39 MB·English

by  David Warner Knight

DISSERTATION
TOURISM, POVERTY, AND DEVELOPMENT: LOCAL PERCEPTIONS,
EMPOWERMENT, AND STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE IN PERU’S SACRED VALLEY

Submitted by
David Warner Knight
Department of Human Dimensions of Natural Resources

In partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
Spring 2015

Doctoral Committee:
Advisor: Stuart P. Cottrell
Alan Bright
Kathleen Pickering
Lenora Bohren
Copyright by David Warner Knight 2015
All Rights Reserved
ABSTRACT

TOURISM, POVERTY, AND DEVELOPMENT: LOCAL PERCEPTIONS,

EMPOWERMENT, AND STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE IN PERU’S SACRED VALLEY

In the late 90s, growing emphasis on the eradication of global poverty led to a newfound
focus on tourism as a tool for international development and poverty alleviation. During this
time, Pro-Poor Tourism (PPT) emerged as an approach aimed at ‘tilting the tourism cake’ and
unlocking opportunities for the poor. Since its inception, PPT has sought to find more effective
ways to measure the effects of tourism on the poor, to better understand the link between
structure, agency, and tourism-based poverty alleviation, and to highlight issues of power that
may influence how poor people become involved in or benefit from tourism.
This dissertation addresses these trends in the PPT literature by seeking to understand and
describe local perceptions of tourism-based poverty alleviation among four communities of
Peru’s Valle Sagrado (Sacred Valley). It focuses particularly on interactions between tourism
associations in each community and Intrepid Travel, an international tour operator based in
Melbourne, Australia. The research was conducted between June and December of 2013 and
employed an ethnographic methodology known as Rapid Qualitative Inquiry (RQI) to gain
insiders’ perspectives on tourism-based poverty alleviation. Sources of data included semi-
structured interviews (N = 93), field notes, participant observation, and documents and reports
from the associations, Intrepid Travel, and various government institutions.
Study findings are presented in the form of three dissertation articles linking local
perceptions of tourism and poverty to processes of empowerment, institutional change, and
national discourses of development. Findings in the first article highlight expressions of power as
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domination through tourism both within and over communities, alluding to interactions that
contributed to the disempowerment of some local people. The article also notes processes of
empowerment for tourism association members in terms of enhanced agency, collectivity, and
self-awareness. In the second article, the interplay between structure and agency is explored by
presenting strategies for institutional change among association members. Findings suggest that
tourism-based poverty alleviation is an opportunity-dependent and opportunity-generating
process, influenced by both the institutional context and the specific strategies of reflexive actors
to improve individual or collective functioning. Finally, article three compares national-level
discourses of development in Peru to local perceptions of poverty and tourism practice outside
Cuzco. Findings suggest that a great deal of overlap exists between local perceptions and income
first, needs first, and rights first approaches to development. This overlap is observed through
specific references to poverty as a lack of money, work, education, or control over tourism in the
Cuzco region.
The findings presented here reinforce previous appeals for both industry and government
leaders to more effectively incorporate emic (local) perceptions and strategies into tourism
policies effecting indigenous communities. Findings may hold broader practical and theoretical
significance for Pro-Poor Tourism (PPT) practice and research, as well. In particular, linking
local perceptions and strategies for change to the frameworks presented may support efforts to
understand the complex process by which ‘opportunities’ are unlocked for local people –
drawing attention to the agency and calculation of reflexive actors, to the selective influence of
institutional configurations, and to the essentiality of indigenous voices and rights in pursuing
tourism-based development at all levels of the socio-political spectrum.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This document represents the culmination of four eventful and exceedingly satisfying
years of my life – made possible through the supportive counsel and encouragement of many
advisors, colleagues, friends, and family members. Firstly, I wish to thank my advisor, Dr. Stuart
Cottrell, for his insights and inspiration both professionally and personally throughout this
project. Many thanks also to my committee – Dr. Alan Bright, Dr. Kathleen Pickering, and Dr.
Lenora Bohren – for their ongoing guidance and reassurance in my doctoral work. For their
significant support and inspiration at CSU, I also wish to thank Arren Mendezona-Allegretti,
David Weinzimmer, Pavlina McGrady, Dr. Christina Minihan, Dr. Jerry Vaske, and the CCC.
Regarding my partnership with Intrepid Travel and work in Peru, I cannot give enough
thanks to Jane Crouch who embodies what should be at the heart of any truly sustainable,
responsible, community-based, pro-poor, or indigenous tourism venture, exemplified by her
sincere interest in pursuing and securing the well-being of local people. I also wish to thank Nilo
David Hancco Chaucca, Intrepid staff in Cuzco and Lima, and the dear families and friends from
Cuzco and the Sacred Valley communities of Chichubamba, Amaru, Sacaca, and Qorqor who
represent the raison d’etre of this entire dissertation.
Additionally, I wish to draw attention to the ongoing love and encouragement of my
family. Thank you, Mom and Dad, for your prayers, support, direction, and friendship. Thank
you, Brad and Jackie, for making life so much fun. Thank you, Paul and Diane, for helping me to
pursue this path and persevere on it. Thank you, Grandma, for loving me as much as ice cream.
Finally, I thank God, as my greatest joy comes from knowing Him. As Emerson wrote:
Within these plantations of God, a decorum and sanctity reign, a perennial festival is dressed,
and the guest sees not how he should tire of them in a thousand years.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………....ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………………iv
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………..ix
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………….x
LIST OF ACRONYMS…………………………………………………………………………..xi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
PROJECT BACKGROUND……………………………………………………….…….1
INDIGNEOUS PEOPLE AND POVERTY……………………………………………...3
TOURISM IN PERU..…………………………………………………………………....6
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM……………………………………………………..9
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND PURPOSE…………………………………………...11
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY………………………………………………………..12
RESEARCH CONTEXT………………………………………………………………..14
STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION……………………………………………...19
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………….20
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….22
DEVELOPMENT AND TOURISM
Overview of Development………………………………………………………24
Discourses of Development……………………………………………………..27
Tourism, Poverty, and Development……………………………………………30
Pro-Poor Tourism……………………………………………………….31
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EMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Indigenous Tourism…………………………………………………………….33
Indigenous Tourism and Local Perceptions……………………………35
Rapid Qualitative Inquiry………………………………………………………37
ETIC CONSIDERATIONS
Institutions and the Strategic-Relational Approach…………………………….41
The Capability Approach……………………………………………………….44
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………48
CHAPTER III: LOCAL PERCEPTIONS OF EMPOWERMENT THROUGH TOURISM IN
PERU’S SACRED VALLEY
OVERVIEW…………………………………………………………………………....50
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………51
PROCESSES OF EMPOWERMENT IN TOURISM……………………………….....54
Evaluating Expressions of Power……………………………………………....56
STUDY CONTEXT…………………………………………………………………....59
Methods…………………………………………………………………………62
RESULTS
Non-Generative Empowerment – Enhanced Domination………………………64
Generative Empowerment – Enhanced Agency,
Collectivity, and Self-Awareness……………………………………....67
Conversion Factors Influencing Empowerment………………………………..71
CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………75
CHAPTER IV: LOCAL STRATEGIES FOR UNLOCKING OPPORTUNITIES
THROUGH INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE: LESSONS FROM PERU’S SACRED VALLEY

OVERVIEW……………………………………………………………………………80
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INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………81
INSTITUTIONS AND THE STRATEGIC-RELATIONAL APPROACH……………83
The Capability Approach……………………………………………………….86
Study Methods……………………………………………………………….....90
Setting………………………………………………………………......90
Context………………………………………………………………….92
RESULTS………………………………………………………………………….…...93
Intra-Institutional Analysis: Chichubamba……………………………………..94
Intra-Institutional Analysis: Qorqor……………………………………………97
Inter-Institutional Analysis: Associations and Intrepid………………………..101
DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………….103
CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………...107
CHAPTER V: DEVELOPMENT DISCOURSES AND LOCAL PERCEPTIONS OF
POVERTY AND TOURISM PRACTICE IN CUZCO, PERU
OVERVIEW……………………………………………………………………………110
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………...111
OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT……………………………………………………113
Discourses of Development…………………………………………………….117
COMPARING DEVELOPMENT DISCOURSES AND LOCAL ACCOUNTS……...119
Income First Development……………………………………………………...119
Needs First Development……………………………………………………….125
Rights First Development………………………………………………………129
CONCLUSION…………..……………………………………………………………..131
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CHAPTER VI: CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………………………137
CLOSING………………………………………………………………………………143

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………146
APPENDICES
I: RESEARCH SUMMARY FOR INTREPID………………………………………...171
II: COMMUNITY TOURISM BRIEFING: CHICHUBAMBA……………………….180
III: COMMUNITY TOURISM BRIEFING: AMARU………………………………..189
IV: COMMUNITY TOURISM BRIEFING: SACACA……………………………….203
V: COMMUNITY TOURISM BRIEFING: QORQOR………………………………..212
VI: COMMUNITY TOURISM BRIEFING: QORQOR (SPANISH)…………………222
VII: LETTER OF INTROCUCTION TO COMMUNITIES…………………………..231
VIII: MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING WITH INTREPID………………..232
IX: SPECIFICATIONS FOR RESEARCH ASSISTANT……………………………..239
X: CONTRACT FOR RESEARCH ASSISTANT POSITION………………………..240
XI: WAIVER OF DOCUMENTED CONSENT + INTERVIEW
PROTOCOL (ENGLISH AND SPANISH) …………………………………...242
XII: BLOG LINKS……………………………………………………………………..247
XIII: QUESTIONNAIRE EXAMPLE: QORQOR (SPANISH) ……………………....248

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1.1 – Intrepid Travel’s principles for operating trips to remote village
communities……………………………………………………………………17

TABLE 1.2 – Linking research questions and objectives to dissertation theories applied
in respective articles/appendices……………………………………………….20

TABLE 3.1 – Descriptions of four types of power and empowerment processes……………..58

TABLE 3.2 – Overview of tourism associations and data collection methods by
community……………………………………………………………………..63

TABLE 3.3 – Processes of empowerment and conversion factors linked to TRC in
communities……………………………………………………………………74

TABLE 4.1 – Strategies for unlocking opportunities through institutional change within
tourism associations……………………………………………………………96

TABLE 4.2 – Strategies for unlocking opportunities through institutional change
between associations and Intrepid……………………………………………..102

TABLE 5.1 – Agreements and incongruities between development discourses and local
accounts of poverty and tourism outside Cuzco ………………………………120

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