POU/POE Implementation Feasibility Study for Arsenic Treatment

228 Pages·2005·1.73 MB·English

Arsenic
Research
Partnership
POU/POE Implementation
Feasibility Study for
Arsenic Treatment
Subject Area:
Efficient and Customer-Responsive Organization

POU/POE Implementation
Feasibility Study for
Arsenic Treatment
©2005 AwwaRF. All rights reserved.
About the Awwa Research Foundation
The Awwa Research Foundation (AwwaRF) is a member-supported, international, nonprofit organization
that sponsors research to enable water utilities, public health agencies, and other professionals to provide
safe and affordable drinking water to consumers.
The Foundation’s mission is to advance the science of water to improve the quality of life. To achieve
this mission, the Foundation sponsors studies on all aspects of drinking water, including supply and
resources, treatment, monitoring and analysis, distribution, management, and health effects. Funding
for research is provided primarily by subscription payments from approximately 1,000 utilities, consulting
firms, and manufacturers in North America and abroad. Additional funding comes from collaborative
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expertise to be shared, and broad-based knowledge to be developed and disseminated. Government
funding serves as a third source of research dollars.
From its headquarters in Denver, Colorado, the Foundation’s staff directs and supports the efforts of
more than 800 volunteers who serve on the board of trustees and various committees. These volunteers
represent many facets of the water industry, and contribute their expertise to select and monitor research
studies that benefit the entire drinking water community.
The results of research are disseminated through a number of channels, including reports, the Web site,
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For subscribers, the Foundation serves as a cooperative program in which water suppliers unite to pool
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has supplied the water community with more than $300 million in applied research.
More information about the Foundation and how to become a subscriber is available on the Web
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©2005 AwwaRF. All rights reserved.
POU/POE Implementation
Feasibility Study for
Arsenic Treatment
Prepared by:
Ramesh Narasimhan, Sudheera Addepally, and Kate Martin
Narasimhan Consulting Services Inc., Phoenix, AZ 85012
Sunil Kommineni
Malcolm Pirnie Inc., Phoenix, AZ 85008
and
Jerry Lowry
Lowry Environmental Engineering, Blue Hill, ME 04614
Sponsored by:
Arsenic Research Partnership
Jointly funded by:
Awwa Research Foundation
6666 West Quincy Avenue, Denver, CO 80235-3098
and
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Published by:
©2005 AwwaRF. All rights reserved.
DISCLAIMER
This study was sponsored by the Arsenic Research Partnership. The Arsenic Research Partnership consisted of
the Awwa Research Foundation (AwwaRF), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and the
Association of California Water Agencies (ACWA). The study was jointly funded by AwwaRF and USEPA
under Cooperative Agreement No. CR 828216-01. AwwaRF, USEPA, and ACWA assume no responsibility for
the content of the research study reported in this publication or for the opinions or statements of fact expressed
in the report. The mention of trade names for commercial products does not represent or imply the approval or
endorsement of AwwaRF, USEPA, or ACWA. This report is presented solely for informational purposes.
Copyright © 2005
by Awwa Research Foundation
All Rights Reserved
Printed in the U.S.A.
©2005 AwwaRF. All rights reserved.
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................. xiii
FOREWORD............................................................................................................................ xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS........................................................................................................ xix
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...................................................................................................... xxi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 1
Arsenic Treatment for Small Water Systems................................................................ 1
Perceptions Regarding POU and POE Use................................................................... 2
Objectives..................................................................................................................... 3
Organization of Report................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF PREVIOUS POU AND POE TREATMENT STUDIES.......... 5
POU and POE Treatment on Long Island, N.Y............................................................ 5
Arsenic Removal From Drinking Water in San Ysidro, N.M...................................... 6
EPA Field Studies of POU Treatment Systems for Arsenic Removal......................... 8
State of Nevada Experiences With POU and POE Treatment...................................... 9
Use of POE Devices for Arsenic Removal in India and Bangladesh........................... 9
AwwaRF Study Comparing Conventional and Unconventional Approaches
for Drinking Water Provision................................................................................. 10
USEPA POU Treatment Study in Grimes, Calif.......................................................... 11
Summary of Key Findings From Previous POU and POE Treatment Studies............. 12
CHAPTER 3: FEDERAL AND STATE REGULATORY SUMMARY............................... 15
Current Status of Federal Regulations.......................................................................... 15
ANSI/NSF Standards and Industry Certification.............................................. 15
USEPA Guidance for POU and POE Treatment Strategies for Compliance... 17
Current Status of State Regulations.............................................................................. 18
Survey of State Regulatory Agencies............................................................... 19
State Regulatory Documents............................................................................. 24
Summary of Federal and State Regulations.................................................................. 25
CHAPTER 4: POU AND POE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES AND
PERFORMANCE TESTING............................................................................................. 27
Arsenic Chemistry and Removal.................................................................................. 27
POU and POE Technologies and Their Applications................................................... 27
Adsorption Processes........................................................................................ 27
Reverse Osmosis............................................................................................... 30
Water Quality Impacts on Arsenic Treatment.............................................................. 31
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©2005 AwwaRF. All rights reserved.
Field Screening of POU and POE Technologies.......................................................... 33
Results of Field Screening Evaluations........................................................................ 39
Metro Water, Tucson, Ariz............................................................................... 39
Sun City West, Ariz. (Phoenix Metropolitan Area).......................................... 44
Stagecoach, Nev................................................................................................ 53
Unity, Maine..................................................................................................... 57
Carson City, Nev............................................................................................... 59
Houston, Texas................................................................................................. 62
Summary of Findings From POU and POE Performance Testing............................... 63
CHAPTER 5: IN-HOME POU FIELD TESTING PROGRAM............................................. 67
Test Sites....................................................................................................................... 67
Silverbell Water System, Tucson, Ariz............................................................. 67
Stagecoach General Improvement District, Stagecoach, Nev.......................... 67
Sandy Stream Park, Unity, Maine..................................................................... 68
Testing Protocol............................................................................................................ 69
Sampling Program............................................................................................ 69
Installation of POU Units.............................................................................................. 71
Recruitment of Homes for Test Sites................................................................ 71
Equipment Installation...................................................................................... 71
In-Home POU Field Testing Results............................................................................ 74
Silverbell Water System, Tucson, Ariz............................................................. 74
Stagecoach General Improvement District, Stagecoach, Nev.......................... 83
Sandy Stream Park, Unity, Maine..................................................................... 86
Statistical Assessment of POU Monitoring.................................................................. 88
POU RO Results............................................................................................... 90
POU Mn-AA Results........................................................................................ 90
EPA Compliance Monitoring........................................................................... 91
Customer Perceptions................................................................................................... 91
Post-Installation Survey Results....................................................................... 91
Exit (End of Study) Survey Results.................................................................. 92
Public Involvement and Communication Issues........................................................... 93
Summary of Results From In-Home POU Field Testing Program............................... 93
CHAPTER 6: COST ASSESSMENT OF POU AND POE ARSENIC TREATMENT......... 95
POU Vendor Survey..................................................................................................... 95
POU Treatment Costs................................................................................................... 95
Cost Evaluation................................................................................................. 95
Cost Assumptions............................................................................................. 98
Cost Calculations.............................................................................................. 99
Purchase/Lease Option...................................................................................... 101
POU Costs vs. Central Treatment Costs........................................................... 104
POE Costs vs. Centralized Treatment Costs..................................................... 109
Summary of POU Treatment Cost Assessment............................................................ 110
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©2005 AwwaRF. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 7: POU/POE IMPLEMENTATION BARRIERS AND
POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS............................................................................................... 113
Regulator and Statutory Acceptance Issues.................................................................. 113
100% Household Participation......................................................................... 116
Ownership of POU Units.................................................................................. 117
Whole House vs. One Faucet Treatment.......................................................... 117
Treatment of Taps in Public and Commercial Buildings.................................. 117
Treatment of Transient Use Taps...................................................................... 118
Monitoring Issues.............................................................................................. 118
Maintenance Requirements............................................................................... 119
Administration Issues........................................................................................ 120
Disposal Issues.................................................................................................. 120
Utility Issues................................................................................................................. 120
Household Participation.................................................................................... 120
Treatment of Taps in Public and Commercial Buildings.................................. 121
Treatment of Transient Use Taps...................................................................... 121
Installation Issues.............................................................................................. 121
Monitoring and Maintenance Issues................................................................. 121
Customer Issues............................................................................................................ 122
Customer Acceptance....................................................................................... 122
POU vs. POE Devices....................................................................................... 122
RO vs. Adsorption Treatment........................................................................... 123
Use of Untreated Taps for Cooking and Consumption Purposes..................... 123
Refrigerator Connection.................................................................................... 123
Common Issues............................................................................................................. 123
HPC Bacteria Levels in POU/POE Effluent..................................................... 123
Liability Issues.............................................................................................................. 124
Summary of Implementation Barriers and Possible Solutions for POU/POE
Treatment Programs................................................................................................ 125
CHAPTER 8: MANAGEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION GUIDELINES FOR
UTILITIES.......................................................................................................................... 127
Is the Water System a Candidate for a POU or POE Treatment Program?.................. 127
Does the State Approve and Support Use of POU or POE Treatment
Devices for SDWA and Arsenic Rule Compliance?.................................. 127
Is Arsenic the Only Contaminant of Concern?................................................. 127
Is the Source Water Suitable for POU or POE Arsenic Treatment?................. 128
Is the Size of the Water System Favorable for POU or POE Treatment?........ 128
Do POU Treatment and the Associated Cost Savings Represent the
Only Practical Solution for Arsenic Compliance?...................................... 130
Will the Water System’s Customers Support and Participate in a
POU or POE Treatment Program?.............................................................. 130
Is the Water System Prepared to Manage the POU or POE
Treatment Program?.................................................................................... 130
Are Vendors Available in the Area of the Water System to Support
the Program?............................................................................................... 131
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©2005 AwwaRF. All rights reserved.
Implementation Steps for a POU or POE Treatment Program..................................... 131
Communicate With State Regulatory Agency.................................................. 131
Conduct Pilot Testing of POU or POE Treatment Technology
Under Site-Specific Field Conditions......................................................... 132
Develop Ordinances and Agreements That Will Allow the Water
System Access to Private Residences or Property...................................... 132
Develop and Submit Management Plan to State Regulatory Agency.............. 132
Perform Public Outreach................................................................................... 133
Negotiate Service and Access Agreements....................................................... 133
Participate in Training Activities...................................................................... 134
Perform Follow-Up Evaluations of the POU or POE Treatment Program....... 134
Summary of Management and Implementation Guidelines......................................... 134
CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS........................................... 139
Summary of Research Activities and Conclusions....................................................... 139
Regulatory Considerations................................................................................ 140
Performance...................................................................................................... 140
In-Home Testing............................................................................................... 140
Costs.................................................................................................................. 141
Potential Barriers to Implementation and Solutions......................................... 142
Recommendations for Further Study............................................................................ 142
APPENDIX A: STATE REGULATORY AGENCY SURVEY.............................................. 143
APPENDIX B: STATE REGULATORY DOCUMENTS...................................................... 147
APPENDIX C: ADSORPTION MEDIA AND RO MEMBRANE SPECIFICATIONS........ 175
APPENDIX D: POU/POE FIELD SCREENING PROTOCOL.............................................. 179
APPENDIX E: POST-INSTALLATION SURVEY................................................................ 193
APPENDIX F: EXIT SURVEY............................................................................................... 195
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................... 197
ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................................................. 199
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©2005 AwwaRF. All rights reserved.