Post-Apocalyptic Religion in Games

20 Pages·2017·21.36 MB·English

religions
Article
‘Things Greater than Thou’: Post-Apocalyptic
Religion in Games
LarsdeWildt* ID,StefAupers,CindyKrassenandIuliaCoanda
InstituteforMediaStudies,KULeuven,Leuven3000,Belgium;[email protected](S.A.);
[email protected](C.K.);[email protected](I.C.)
* Correspondence:[email protected](L.d.W.);Tel:[phone].
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Received:3May2018;Accepted:18May2018;Published:23May2018
Abstract:Intheliteratureonreligioningames,twobroadtypesofreligionhavebeendepicted:onthe
onehand,historicalreligions—Christian,MuslimandBuddhistnarratives,tropesandsymbols—and,
on the other hand, fiction-based religion, referring to fantasy, myth and popular culture. In this
articleweaimtodescribe,analyzeandexplaintheemergenceofanew,unacknowledgedrepertoire.
Buildingontwocasestudies—Fallout3andHorizon: ZeroDawn—wearguethatmoderntechnology
(computers,AI,VR,androids)itselfisbecomingasacredobjectofvenerationinfiction,specificallyin
post-apocalypticgamesthatimagineman-madeannihilation. Althoughthethemesandtopicsdiffer,
thisemergentformoftechno-religioningamenarrativesisgenerallylocatedinapost-apocalyptic
setting.Althoughtheyarefictitious,weconcludethatsuchnarrativesreflectdevelopmentsinreallife,
inwhichtechnologysuchasartificialintelligenceisfearedasanincreasinglypowerful,opaqueforce.
Keywords: post-apocalypse;videogames;religioningames;Horizon: ZeroDawn;Fallout3
Aloy: “WhyarethelandsbeyondNoraterritorycalled‘tainted’?”
Teersa: “Isitnotobvious? Ourlandissacred. WeliveinsightoftheoneGoddess,All-Mother—
sourceofallthatlives. Beyondhersightliesavastfallenland,spirituallytainted. Thatiswhyitis
againsttriballawtoleave. Butthisblessingwillprotectyou.”
1. RevelationsofaNewWorld
Videogamesallowustoimagineworldsbeyondourown. Muchlikereligionshaveofferedusthe
abilitytothinkbeyondourmundanedailylives,turningonourcomputersorconsolescanofferusa
differentworld. Theelectiveaffinitybetweenreligionandgameshasnotgoneunnoticedinacademia.
Ontheonehand,ithasbeenwidelyarguedthatgamesfunctionasreligionsince,asHuizingaargued,
“intotheconfusionoflifeitbringsatemporary,limitedperfection”(Huizinga1970,p. 12). Onthe
otherhand,gametextsarebrimmingwithreligiousnarratives,symbols,tropesandplotsandareas
suchencodedwith‘ultimatemeanings’thatarenegotiated,reconstructedandreversedwhileplaying
(SchaapandAupers2017).
Thetraditionalfunctionofreligion—ultimatemeaning-makinginthefaceofthis-worldlyillness,
suffering and death (Weber 1948; Berger 1967)—thus becomes an important asset in game design
(cf. Wagner 2012; Leibovitz 2014). Not always are game worlds and the narratives they display
hopeful,however. Thispaperconsidersthecaseofthe‘post-apocalyptic’gamegenre. Howissuch
adeeplyreligiousconcept—theendoftheworldmostcloselyassociatedwiththeeponymousNew
Testamentbook—madeintoagenreforentertainment,andwhatplacedoesreligionhavewithinthe
post-apocalypticworldsportrayed? Promptedbyprevioustheorizationsofreligioninfictionalmedia,
weproposethatinordertounderstandthewaythepost-apocalypseistreatedinvideogames,wemust
Religions2018,9,169;doi:10.3390/rel9060169 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions
Religions2018,9,169 2of20
turnto‘sciencefiction-based’religion,acategoryofreligiousrepresentationthatfallsbeyondthescopes
ofhistory-andfiction-basedreligion. Thatis,whileampleacademicscholarshipreflectsongames’
representationofBiblical,Islamicandotherhistoricalreligions,aswellasonthefictionalreligionsof
SkyrimorTolkienthatarebasedonthefantasygenre,thereislittleattentiongiventoanewkindof
religiosityaroundtechnology,specificallyinitsdystopian,sometimesfearfulguise(cf. Geraci2012).
Given the explorative nature of this study, we focus on game texts as source material, before
lookingattheirplayersordevelopers: agame-immanentapproachratherthananactor-centeredone
(Heidbrinketal.2014;Zeiler2018;Aupersetal.2018;cf. DeWildtandAupers2018). Byhighlighting
Fallout 3 and Horizon: Zero Dawn as two popular, theoretically relevant case studies from the past
10years,thispaperwillexplorewhetherandhowreligionisrepresentedinaworldwheresociety
andhumanityhavebeennearly,ifnotcompletelyerased. Inshort,wewillask: Howdovideogames
presentreligioninthepost-apocalypseand,particularly,howisreligionpositionedvis-à-visfuture
technologiesinthegameworld?
2. ReligioninGames: History,FantasyandFuture
Overall,theresearchonreligioningamesisconcernedwithrecognizingreligiousbeliefsingames:
how religious beliefs occur; how ‘superempirical’ gods (and other entities) and their followers are
represented;andhowreligiouselementsandnarrativesareincorporatedininteractiveworlds. Inother
words,‘religioningames’researchstudiestheoccurrenceofreligioninthenarrativeorrepresentative
contentofgames—orthe“narratological”layerofgames,forlackofabetterterm(cf. Aarseth2001;
Frasca2003;Murray2005;cf. DeWildt2014;e.g.,Bosman2016). Examplesabound. ScholarssuchasVit
ŠisleremployculturalapproachestoreligioninordertoidentifyhowtheIslamicfaithanditsfollowers
have been represented differently in Western and Middle Eastern games (Šisler2006,2008,2009);
whereasMassoandAbramshavedonethesameforJudaism(MassoandAbrams2014).Otherresearch
hasfocusedmoredirectlyonhownarrativesfromworldreligionsareincorporatedandchangedby
gamedesigners,suchasRobertW.Guyker’sanalysisofJourney’suseofshamanistictropesrecurring
throughoutpre-modernandnon-Westernreligions(Guyker2014);andBosmanandPoorthuis’tracing
oftheoccurrenceandadaptationsofLilithandtheNephilim(Judeo-Christianmythologicalcharacters)
throughoutJudaic,Christian,Islamicandoccultliteratureaswellasvariousgames,eachconsidered
equally(BosmanandPoorthuis2015).
WhiletheseresearchexamplesandtheircasestudiesdrawonwhatDavidsencalls“history-based”
religion,orconventionalworldreligionsthat“claimtorefertoeventsthathavetakenplaceinthe
actual world” such as the Christian Gospels (Davidsen 2013, p. 386), most games rely instead on
fictionalreligions. Weusetheterm“fiction-based”hereasopposedto“history-based,”wherethe
latterreferstolong-standingreligiouspracticessuchasChristianity,Islam,Hinduismandtheotherbig
worldreligions. Theconceptualizationof“fiction-based”andthecontrastwithhistory-basedreligions
springsfromthesociologicalliteratureoncontemporaryreligiouspracticesaroundmodernfiction,
suchasTolkien-basedreligions, Jediism, Matrixismandsoon(Davidsen2013; cf. Possamai2005).
Althoughthisdistinctionisempiricallyandtheoreticallyproblematicfromsomesocietalperspectives,
suchasthosethatregardtheBibleaspotentiallyfictionjustasmuchasotherfictionispotentially
sacred(cf. DeWildtandAupers2017),thedistinctionishelpfulasananalyticalconstruct. Thatis,it
allowsustodifferentiatebetweenestablishedtraditionsvis-à-visthosereligionsthatweremadeup
foramodernfictionalwork,withoutdiminishinghowmeaningfuleithercanbe.
2.1. FantasyFiction-BasedReligion: AStrongBias
Fiction-basedreligionisastapleinvideogamesandprovidesfrequentnarrativebackgroundand
ludiccontextstomakegamesmeaningfulforplayers. ResearchbyTanyaKrzywinska,forexample,
showsthroughacombinationofethnographyandcontentanalysisthatthedifferentfictionalreligious
traditionsinWorldofWarcraft—inventedbeliefsystemsrangingfromthemonotheistic“Churchof
the Holy Light” to the kinds of totemic and animistic nature worship organized around fictional
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deities—provide invaluable drama and cosmological conflict through the beliefs of non-playable
charactersandthenarrativebackgroundsofplayers’characters(Krzywinska2006). Moreradically,
MarkusWiemkerandJanWysockiarguethat‘god’games—whereplayerstakethepositionofthe
omniscient,powerfulGodofasociety—drawfromawidearrayofculturalinfluencestoshapetheir
ownalternativebeliefsystemsbasedongame-specificownmorals,miraclesanddivinemanifestations
(WiemkerandWysocki2014).
However,astheseandothercasestudiesshow,muchworkaboutin-gamereligionthatisnot
groundedinestablished,history-basedreligions,isaboutfiction-basedreligioningames,particularly
ofthefantasygenre(e.g.,Aupers2007;Bainbridge2013;Copier2005;Fine1983;Gregory2014;etc.).
Inhisessay“OnFairyStories,”the‘FatherofFantasy’J.R.R.Tolkienarguesthatthereisafundamental
humanneedtoimaginealternativefantasyworlds. Inthisessay,asmuchasthroughhisownfictional
work,Tolkienexpressesaneedforfictionto“enchant”us,tograntusrecovery,escapeandconsolation
fromourdailylives(Tolkien1939;cf. Curry1999). Fantasyfiction-basedreligioninmediatexts—films,
seriesandgames—maybeconsideredaproductoftheromanticimagination. Bornfromtheworkof
Tolkien,fantasycanbecategorizedas“deeplynostalgic[... ]anemotionallyempoweringnostalgia”
(Curry2005,p. 126)oran“archaicnostalgia”(Jameson1975,p. 161)foraworldthatisinfusedwith
spiritual values, meaning, magic and enchantment. Indeed: the imaginary past in which fantasy
fiction-basedreligionisset,presupposestheomnipresenceofreligion,magic,andbeliefsinspiritual
forcesinnature.Alongsidehistoricalreligions,fantasythusalsopresentsreligiousworldsassomething
romantic,anddeeplynostalgicallyassociatedwithrural,pseudo-medievalandmagicalpasts.
Tolkienpracticedwhathepreached. MiddleEarth,thelocationofhistrilogyLordoftheRings,
whichwasfirstpublishedin1954,isbothfantasticandrealistic,bothmythicalandrational,andis
by far the most influential work in the fantasy genre. Its main narrative—featuring creatures like
hobbits,elves,andwizardsasmainprotagonists—ismainlybasedonNorsemythologyandembraces
a“polytheistic-cum-animistcosmologyof‘naturalmagic’”(Curry1998,p. 28). These‘pre-modern’
religious worldviews are, Tolkien felt, important since “the ‘war’ against mystery and magic by
modernity urgently requires a re-enchantment of the world, which a sense of Earth-mysteries is
much better placed to offer than a single transcendent deity” (Curry 1998, pp. 28–29). Middle
Earth,inshort,wasinpartinventedtocountermodernprocessesofdisenchantmentbut,ironically,
became fully embraced by the modern world since the 1960s. The literary work and mythopoeic
approachofTolkienalsospilledovertothegameindustryandbecame,assuch,atypicalexampleofa
“transmedial”phenomenon(Jenkins2006). Myth-making,inthecontextofcomputergames,becamea
matteroftechnicaldesign. Turkleargues: “Thepersonalcomputermovementofthe1970sandearly
1980swasdeeplyimmersedinTolkienandtranslatedhisfantasyworldsintohugelypopular(and
enduring)role-playinggames”(Turkle2002,p. 18). Indeed,Tolkiendiedin1973, butaroundthat
sametimehisenchantingworldwasreproducedincyberspace. In1976aStanfordhacker,Donald
Woods,andaprogrammer,WillCrowther,developedAdventure,thefirsttext-basedrole-playinggame
on the computer. Adventure “turned out to be one of the most influential computer games in the
medium’searlyhistory”(KingandBorland2003,p. 31). Animportantshiftcameinthe1980swhen
TrubshawandBartledevelopedthe‘Multi-UserDungeon’(MUDs)thatmadeitpossibletocollectively
explorethistextualworld. Betweentheendofthe1970sandthebeginningofthe1990s,text-based
role-playinggamesandMUDswerebooming. Someexamplesthataredirectlyderivedfromthework
ofTolkienareTheShire(1979),Ringen(1979),LordoftheRings(1981),LORD(1981),RingofDoom(1983),
Ringmaster(1984),TheMinesofMoria(1985),Bilbo(1989),TheBalrogiantrilogy(1989)andElendor(1991).
In1996and1997, respectively, DiabloandUltimaOnlinewerelaunchedontheInternet—thelatter
generallyunderstoodasthefirstthree-dimensionalMassivelyMultiplayerOnlineRolePlayingGames.
Inthelastdecadesuchfantasygamesbecameimmenselypopular,whethermulti-orsingle-player.
Well-knownexamplesareEverquest(1999),AsheronsCall(1999),DarkAgeofCamelot(2001),Worldof
Warcraft(2004),LordoftheRingsOnline(2007),TheElderScrollsseriesincludingthehitSkyrim(2011)
andtheMMOTES:O(2014),theDragonAgeseries,mostrecentlytitledInquisition(2014),andsoon—all
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ofwhich,withoutexception,harkenbacktoafaux-medievalTolkienesquefantasyworldofreligion
andenchantment.
2.2. ScienceFiction-BasedReligion: ABlindSpot
Thefocusonfantasyinacademia,weargue,blinkersother,unacknowledgedgenresthatconstitute
fiction-based religion in games. As opposed to fantasy fiction, science fiction narratives present
futuristicuniversesdevoidofreligiousmeaning.Indeed:tappingintocurrenttrendsandextrapolating
these to the future, sci-fi worlds seem to be dominated by scientific reasoning instead of faith and
technological practices, methods and artefacts instead of magic. More than anything else, science
fictionwouldseemtoexemplifythe“disenchantmentoftheworld”(Weber1948). ToparaphraseMax
Weber,likeintherealworld,infuturisticsci-fiuniversessuchasStarTrek:
“Oneneednolongerhaverecoursetomagicalmeanstomasterorimplorethespirits,as
didthesavage,forwhomsuchmysteriouspowersexisted. Technicalmeansandcalculation
performtheservice”(Weber1948,p. 139)
Such(evolutionary)argumentsaboutrationalism,science,andtechnologyasan“irreligiouspower”
(Ibid.,p. 142),aredeeplyinstitutionalizedinthesocialsciences,andmayaccountforthefactthat
debatesonfiction-basedreligiongenerallyshowabiastowardsthefantasygenreandablindspotfor
thesci-figenre.
Notwithstandingcountlessrecentstudiesshowingthatthedichotomyscience/technologyversus
religion is theoretically and empirically problematic (e.g., Latour 2012; Noble 1999; Davis 1998),
particularly since the cultural logic of modernization spawns its own religions, spiritualities and
magicalre-enchantments(AupersandHoutman2010),thereareampleindicationsthatthescience
fiction genre is infused with religion, myth and magic. Much of the golden age of sci-fi between
the 1930s and the 1970s was utopian, informed by a typical modern belief in scientific progress,
spaceexplorationandtechnologicalcontrolovernature;ifreligionwasmentioned,itwasgenerally
depicted as an outdated, irrational uncivilized worldview (Bleiler 1990; Fitting 2010). The genre
of cyberpunk—allegedly pioneered by Philip K. Dick in the 1970s (Davis 1998), and developed
by Vernor Vinge, William Gibson and Neal Stephenson in the 1980s and 1990s (Cavallaro 2000),
we argue, exemplifies an important shift in which science fiction opens up to religion, magic and
enchantment. More fundamentally, we theorize, science fiction-based religions indicate a radical
and unacknowledged ontological shift in the perspective on religion: religious, spiritual or occult
phenomena are no longer located in nature (as in history- or fantasy-based religion), but in the
man-madetechnologicalworld.
What, then, was the role of the cyberpunk genre in the formation of science fiction-based
religion? Itisalreadyamainstayinliteraturethatcyberpunkbothreflectedemergenttechnologiesin
the1980s—informationandcommunicationtechnology,virtualreality,ArtificialIntelligence—and
influencedit(Dery1996). Thekeyelementisvirtualreality. Inspiredbyobservationsinanarcade
hallandpredatingtheWorldWideWeb,WilliamGibsondubbedtheterm‘cyberspace’inhisnovel
Neuromancer(1981)tosignifyadigitalspaceopenedupbyconnectedcomputersor,rather: “atailored
hallucination” promising the “bodiless exultation of cyberspace” to its consumers. Alternatively
called “the Other plane” (by Vernor Vinge in 1981) and “the metaVerse” (by Neal Stephenson in
1993), the man-made ontology of cyberspace became the pinnacle of the religious imagination in
cyberpunkandbeyond. Asanimmaterialspacebeyondtimeandplace,itwasconsideredinthe1990s
as“metaphysicalspace”(Heim1993),“newJerusalem”(Benedikt1992,p. 14)anda“paradisewhere
wewillbeangels”(Stenger1992,p. 52). AsoneoftheprotagonistsinGibson’slaternovelMonaLisa
Overdrivespeculatedabouttheomnipresenceandopacityofcyberspace: “IstheMatrixGod?”
This religious imaginary is not restricted to the ontology of cyberspace. At the heart of the
cyberpunk narratives, we find the assumption that our human life-world, including our virtual
environment, istotallypermeatedwithautonomoustechnologiestotheextentthatpeoplecanno
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longermakevaliddistinctionsbetweenrealityandfantasy;humansandAI;technologyandmagic.
“Cyberpunk,”Cavallaroarguesinthisrespect,“chartsanambivalentmythopoeiainwhichnewforms
oflifeareseentoemergefromtechnologyand,atthesametime,thedigitaluniverseispermeated
bymysticismandoccultism”(Cavallaro2000,pp. 53–54). Charactersincyberpunknovelsconstantly
encounter creatures and entities that may be either artificially intelligent or spiritual. Case, the
protagonist of Gibson’s Neuromancer, for instance meets ‘Flatliner’—a deceased hacker haunting
cyberspace—and his digitally reincarnated girlfriend Linda. Gibson’s second novel, Count Zero,
introducestheLoa—voodoo-godsthatappear,sendmessagesanddisappearagain. AretheyGodsor
maliciousprogrammes? Indeed: inNealStephenson’sSnowcrash,artificialintelligencesare‘speaking
intongues’—instigatingreligiousvirusesamongstthepassivepopulation.
Thishoveringbetweentechnologyandspirituality—ormorespecificallytheframingofpowerful
andopaquetechnologiesasthemselvesreligiousorenchanting—isakeyfeatureofcyberpunknovels
inthe1980sand1990s. Thissciencefiction-basedreligionhasgonemainstreameversince. Hollywood
blockbusters—fromTheLawnmowerMan(1993),ExistenZ(1999),TheMatrix(2000)toTranscendence
(2014), increasingly feature the message that, while nature may be under the control of humans,
“technologyisGod”(Dinello2005).
3. Post-ApocalypticReligion
Sciencefiction-basedreligion,then,fromcyberpunknovelstoHollywoodblockbusters,seemsto
indicateanontologicalturnfromthesacredsituatedinnaturetothesacredsituatedintechnology.
Notwithstanding the ‘disenchantment of the world,’ omnipotent and opaque technology invokes
religious imaginary that is by and large unacknowledged in the literature. This brings us to our
case-studies. Ifthecyberpunkofthe20thcenturydealtwith20th-centuryconcernsof‘virtualreality’
andcomputervirusesinareligious-spiritualway, howdoesthesciencefictionofthe21stcentury
dealwith21st-centuryconcernsabouttechnology? Thispaperselectstwocasestudiesfeaturinga
post-apocalypticworld:the1950s‘atompunk’settingofFallout3andthefaux-prehistorical‘stonepunk’
ofHorizonZeroDawn. Theanalysisisguidedbythequestion: Howdovideogamespresentreligionin
thepost-apocalypseand,particularly,howisreligionpositionedvis-à-visfuturetechnologiesinthe
gameworld?
Thequestionismotivatedbytwoconcerns,basedonthetheoreticalframeworkabove. Firstofall,
sciencefiction-basedreligionplacesthesacredinanoftendystopianfuture,ratherthaninafantastical
or historical past. Secondly, science fiction-based religion places the sacred into the technological,
rather than the (super)natural. As a consequence, these dystopian futures are often motivated by
a fear of the potential of technology. In line with this, post-apocalyptic games such as Fallout and
Horizoninvariablyshowaworlddestroyedbyman-madetechnologicaldisaster. Fallout3,releasedby
Bethesdain2007togreatacclaim,showsaworlddestroyedbytheatomicbomb,filledwithrobots
stillrunning(over200yearsafterbeingmanufactured)onatomicenergy,butwithonlysmallpockets
ofhumanslefttoinhabittheearthalongsidethem. Horizon: ZeroDawntakesplace1000yearsafter
theinventionof‘BiomatterConversion’—theabilityformachinestoinfinitelyreproduceandfuel
themselvesbyconsuminggrass,humansandotheranimals—causestheapocalypse,inwhichsmall
tribespopulateanearthdominatedbyself-reproducingrobotsandrarewildlife. Bothgamesrevolve
aroundhumans,includingtheplayer,copingwiththedominanceofthesetechnologicalinventionsin
aworldwherehumansfacenear-extinction.
3.1. Fallout3: “WhyDoYouWorshiptheBomb?”
ConfessorCromwell: “TheChurchoftheChildrenofAtomisbasedontheideathateachsingle
atomicmassinallofcreationcontainswithinitanentireuniverse. Whenthatatomicmassissplit,a
singleuniversedividesandbecomestwo—thussignifyingthesinglegreatestactofAtom’screation.
Religions2018,9,169 6of20
Occasionally,adivineeventoccursandtrillionsupontrillionsofnewuniversesarecreated. Thelast
sucheventtookplacehere,200yearsago. WheremostofthelostchildrenofAtomseethateventas
simplewaranddevastation,weseecreationandunificationinAtom’sGlow.”
LoneWanderer[Player-character]: Whydoyouworshipthebomb?
Confessor Cromwell: “Those who were called to Atom during the Great Division were very
fortunate. TheywerepermittedtoaidintheprocessofAtom’screation. Weseekthesame,bothin
symbolandinfactandthe’bomb,’asyoucallit,representsAtom’scapacityforcreation. Wekneel
beforeitandaskthatAtomcallustoaidhim. Wepraythatoutofourmeagerbodies,hewillcreate
newlife.”
Theyearis2277AD.Exactly200yearsago,theUnitedNationswasdissolved,Chinaoccupied
AlaskaandtheUSAhaveannexedCanada. Theyear2077bringsaboutaworldwidenuclearwar
that destroys most of the important human settlements around the world. The Fallout series is
stagedinanalternativehistoricaltimelineafterthefalloutofanuclearwarbetweenChinaandthe
USA.Thesocioculturalcontextsurroundingthiswaristhatofasocietythathaskepttheculturally
conservativeaestheticofthe1950sbutdevelopeddifferenttechnologywiththehelpofitsnewlyfound
nuclearenergysupply. Theenvisionedworldplacesuraniumatthecenterofsocietalchange,asthe
mostimportanthumanresourceandthemainreasonforafull-scaleglobalconflict.
In this context, the game assigns two key figures as symbols of the world’s technological
advancement: artificial intelligence (especially robots) and the atomic bomb. The Fallout games
developthesetechnologicalartifactsandweavethemintotheirmainstorylines, wheretheycome
totakecompletelydifferentpositionsinsociety. Whilebothroboticdevelopmentsandmissilesare
createdwiththehelpofnuclearpower,therocketsymbolattainsamoresacralizedpositioninthis
society’spost-apocalypticdevelopment. Mosttypically,weseethisintheemergenceofthe“Churchof
theChildrenofAtom.”Theirworshipofatomicenergyisnotostensiblyareligionrootedinalong
tradition,butisfundamentallypartofatraumatizingcontemporaryreality: anundetonatedwarhead
inaworlddestroyedbyatomicbombs.
Nuclearpower,deifiedasAtom,isworshippedtohavedestructiveandmetamorphic,cleansing
properties: “WemustsuffertotrulyfeelAtom'sembrace,tolaybrokenbeforeHim,andfeelthegentle
washoftheGlow.”Whilethepre-existing,pre-apocalypticreligionsarepracticallyextinct,theChurch
oftheChildrenofAtomisapost-warreligiouscultthatworships‘Atom’astheirsingulardivineagent,
whichisomnipresent,omniscientandomnipotent. Atomiseverywhere,knowseverything,andhas
thepowertoaffectthepropertiesofdifferentbodiesintheworld.Asthegame’sloadingscreen—which
actsasatypeofnarrator,normallydispensinggame-playtipsandlorefromanextra-diegetic,objective
perspective—occasionallyexplains: “TheChurchoftheChildrenofAtombelievethewarof2077was
actuallyagreatholyeventperpetuatedbytheirgod,Atom.”
StartingwithFallout3,theplayerisintroducedtoChurchoftheChildrenofAtominMegaton—not
coincidentallyalsothenameforanexplosivemeasurementunit. Thetown,whichislikelyoneofthe
firstthatplayersencounter(cf. Bainbridge2016),ishosttoanundetonatedatombomb,discovered
bysurvivorsinthewastelandofwhatwasformerlyWashington,D.C.Megatonwasbuiltaroundthe
bomb,whichtheinhabitantscametofear,respectandeventuallyworship(Figure1). Thecentrality
ofthisreligiontoMegatoncanmostliterallybeseenthroughitsmaplocation,atthecenterofthe
settlement(Figure2). TownandChurchareeffectivelyledbyConfessorCromwell,whocanbeseenin
Figure1preachingAtom’spowertoallwhocanhear:
“GiveyourbodiestoAtom,myfriends. Releaseyourselftohispower,feelhisGlowand
beDivided.
Yea,yoursufferingshallexistnolonger;itshallbewashedawayinAtom’sGlow,burned
fromyouinthefireofhisbrilliance.
Religions2018,9,169 7of20
Comeforthanddrinkthewateroftheglow. Forthisancientweaponofwarisoursalvation,
it is the very symbol of Atom’s glory. Let it serve as a reminder of the division that has
occurredinthepast.”
Here,Atomissaidtocomeanddivideourcells,endingourearthlysuffering. Atomispresent
anywhere,fromthe“infiniteworlds”insideoureverycell,tothehugeradiationstorms,powerful
ecologicalconsequencesofthenuclearfalloutthatplaguesthewasteland.Thus,theChurchwascreated
Religions 2017, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20
andfortifiedinMegatonwhereitsfirstsettlerstookshelterinthecraterinthe23rdcentury—andit
Religions 2017, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20
hasspreadacrosstheUnitedStatessincethen,astheappearanceoftheChurchatteststoinvarious
and it has spread across the United States since then, as the appearance of the Church attests to in
pvanlaardci oeisut sihn apsFl aasclpleorsue itan4d ,F awacllhrooiucsths 4 tt,ah wkee hUsicnphilt atecadek ebSstaa rpteellasyc se1i 0nbcayere eatlrhyse 1lna0,t eyarse. atrhse l aatpepr.e arance of the Church attests to in
various places in Fallout 4, which takes place barely 10 years later.

Figure 1. Confessor Cromwell preaching and praying next to the atom bomb.
Figure1.ConfessorCromwellpreachingandprayingnexttotheatombomb.
Figure 1. Confessor Cromwell preaching and praying next to the atom bomb.

Figure 2. Megaton’s map (Fallout Wikia n.d.).
Figure 2. Megaton’s map (Fallout Wikia n.d.).
Figure2.Megaton’smap(FalloutWikian.d.).
Fallout 3 presents a world in which the near-complete destruction of human civilization means
that Fmaollsotu ts c3i epnrteisfiecn tasn ad wtroardldit iionn walh iinchst itthuet inoenasr -hcaovmep dleitsea pdpesetarruecdt.i oAnf otefr h tuhme aanp ocicvaillyizpasteio, nth me eraanws
Fallout3presentsaworldinwhichthenear-completedestructionofhumancivilizationmeans
pthoawt emr oosf tn succileenatri feinc earngdy ctarand oitniloyn bael uinnsdtietursttiooonds ahsa vpeh edniosmapepneaalr. eAdd. dAitfitoenr atlhlye, tahpeo dcaislyappspee,a rthane crea owf
that most scientific and traditional institutions have disappeared. After the apocalypse, the raw
apnoyw enre ocef snsuacryle akrn eonwerlgedyg cea no of nnlyu cblee aurn dpeorwsteoro—dm aso spth eanpopmliaenncaels. Afrdodmit iobneafollrye, tthhee daispaopcpaelyaprasne cset iolfl
powerofnuclearenergycanonlybeunderstoodasphenomenal. Additionally,thedisappearance
wanoyr kn—ecmesaskaersy ikt ninowtol ead gme aogfic anlu, cilnecaor mpporwehere—nsmiboles t paopwpelria. nIctse sd fersotmru cbtievfeo rpe ottheen tiaapl occaanly posnel ys tbilel
of any necessary knowledge of nuclear power—most appliances from before the apocalypse still
iwmoargki—nemd,a wkehsi leit itisn atolt eari nmga egfficeaclt, o inn mcoumtaptreedh henusmibalne s paonwd earn.i mItas lsd ceasntr sutciltli vbee speoetne.n Wtiahli lec athne oCnhlyu rcbhe
work—makesitintoamagical,incomprehensiblepower.Itsdestructivepotentialcanonlybeimagined,
oimf tahgei nCehdi,l dwrheinle o ift sA atlotemri ndgei efifefes ctth oisn pmoutetnatteiadl ,h Fuamlloaunts 3 a cnodn atrnaismtsa list wcainth s tailnl obteh seere rne.l iWgihoiules tihnest Cituhutirocnh,
whileitsalteringeffectonmutatedhumansandanimalscanstillbeseen. WhiletheChurchofthe
tohf atth oef C ah mildorree nro omf Aantotimc s dpeiriiftiuesa lt hcuisl tp, othteen Ttiraele, mFainlldouetr s3. cTohnet rTarsetesm iti wnditehr sa anroet ha ecro rmelmiguionuitsy i nins tOitaustiiso—n,
athna ti mofm ae mdioartee rvoimsuaanlt iocp sppoirsiittuea tl oc uMlt,e tghaet oTnr:e evmeridnadnetr,s .s Tphraew Tlrienegm ainndd emrsu alrtei- lae cvoemllemd.u nIti tcya inn oOnalsyi sb—e
aacnc eimssmede dthiartoeu vgihs uaanl aorpdpuoosuitse aton dM heigdadteonn : mvoerudnatnaitn, sppartahw. lTinhge raen, dra mthuerlt it-hleavne lale ldo.u Idt lyca pnr eoanclhyi nbge
Cacocnefsessesdo rt hCrrooumghw ealnl aatr dthueo cuesn atenrd o fh iMddegenat omno, ustnatnadins pa astohf.t -Tsphoerkee,n r aTtrheeer Ftahtahne ra B liorcuhd, lyw hpore gaucharindgs
tChoen efenstsroarn cCer oamndw ienllv aitte tsh teh cee nptleary eorf iMnseigdaet.o Tn,h set atwndos rae lsiogfito-nsps oekveenn Tarcete aFsa tshyemr mBiertcrhic, awl hgoa mgueparladys
othpet ioennstr, ainnc teh aatn tdh ein pvliateyse rt hhea sp tlhaey eorp itniosnid teo. fTuhlley tdweos trroelyi geiiotnhse re tvoewnn a (cctf .a Bs ossymmamn e2t0r1ic7a)l, Ogaamsise palnady
Mopetgioantos,n i,n t ot hvaiot ltehnet lpyl aeryaesre h tahse twheo rosphtiipo nof t toh efusell ya ndteitshterotiyc geiotdhes r( dtoewstrnu (cctfi.o nB ovssm. carne a2t0io1n7)),. Oasis and
MegaAtos no,p tpo ovsieodle tnot lAy teormas,e t hthee T wreoermshinipd oerf st hdeesiefy a nnatittuhreet,i ce mgobdosd (idedes itnru tchteio snh vaps.e c oref a‘Ttihoen )G. reat One,’
a talkAinsg o tprpeeo.s Tedhe t oG Aretaotm O,n teh—e Torre aesm hien’ds earlsso d ceaifllye dn aTthuere L, oermdb, Hodimied, T ihne t hOen seh Wapheo o Gf r‘Tohwes ,G Greivaet sO, anned,’
Ga tuaildkeins,g a tnrede T. Thhe eT Galrkeiantg O Tnree—e, oorr a ssi mhep’sly a lHsoa rcoalldle d– Tish teh Le oprrdo,d Huicmt ,o Tf hae r Oetnroev Wiruhso eGxrpoowsus,r Ge itvheast, wanads
Guides, and The Talking Tree, or simply Harold – is the product of a retrovirus exposure that was
Religions2018,9,169 8of20
ChildrenofAtomdeifiesthispotential,Fallout3contrastsitwithanotherreligiousinstitution,that
ofamoreromanticspiritualcult,theTreeminders. TheTreemindersareacommunityinOasis—an
immediatevisualoppositetoMegaton: verdant,sprawlingandmulti-levelled. Itcanonlybeaccessed
through an arduous and hidden mountain path. There, rather than a loudly preaching Confessor
CromwellatthecenterofMegaton,standsasoft-spokenTreeFatherBirch,whoguardstheentrance
andinvitestheplayerinside. Thetworeligionsevenactassymmetricalgameplayoptions,inthatthe
playerhastheoptiontofullydestroyeithertown(cf. Bosman2017),OasisandMegaton,toviolently
erasetheworshipoftheseantitheticgods(destructionvs. creation).
AsopposedtoAtom,theTreemindersdeifynature,embodiedintheshapeof‘TheGreatOne,’
atalkingtree. TheGreatOne—orashe’salsocalledTheLord,Him,TheOneWhoGrows,Gives,and
Religions 2017, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20
Guides,andTheTalkingTree,orsimplyHarold–istheproductofaretrovirusexposurethatwas
supposedtocreateresistancetoradiationbutinsteadcreatedmutatedhumans. Theretrovirus’effect
supposed to create resistance to radiation but instead created mutated humans. The retrovirus’ effect
onHaroldisthatatreestartedgrowingoutofhimuntilhebecameonewithit(Figure3).
on Harold is that a tree started growing out of him until he became one with it (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Harold, The One Who Grows, Gives and Guides, talking to the player.
Figure3.Harold,TheOneWhoGrows,GivesandGuides,talkingtotheplayer.
Harold, however, has no pretensions of being a god and is not happy with the cult’s veneration
Harold,however,hasnopretensionsofbeingagodandisnothappywiththecult’svenerationof
of him. His mutations gave birth to the entire forest of Oasis, an achievement considered a miracle in
him. HismutationsgavebirthtotheentireforestofOasis,anachievementconsideredamiracleinthe
the destitute Wasteland. On a ludic level, the player can decide to let the tree die (a wish expressed
destituteWasteland. Onaludiclevel,theplayercandecidetoletthetreedie(awishexpressedby
by Harold as well) and completely destroy the last kernels of this spiritual and romantic cult; or
Haroldaswell)andcompletelydestroythelastkernelsofthisspiritualandromanticcult;orinstead
instead to let him selflessly live to create new forests. Whereas nature was killed by the atom bomb
tolethimselflesslylivetocreatenewforests. Whereasnaturewaskilledbytheatombomb(thegodof
(the god of the Children of Atom), the initial retrovirus that was supposed to make humans resistant
theChildrenofAtom),theinitialretrovirusthatwassupposedtomakehumansresistanttoAtom’s
to Atom’s radiation fights back through Harold.
radiationfightsbackthroughHarold.
In the more recent Fallout 4, the Church of the Children of Atom is now present in a totally
In the more recent Fallout 4, the Church of the Children of Atom is now present in a totally
irradiated environment, The Glowing Sea (Figure 4). Upon meeting the leader of the cult’s base in the
irradiatedenvironment,TheGlowingSea(Figure4). Uponmeetingtheleaderofthecult’sbaseinthe
Glowing Sea, players may ask “Holy Ground? Atom? What's going on here?” The explanation is that
GlowingSea,playersmayask“HolyGround? Atom? What'sgoingonhere?”Theexplanationisthat
“Atom reached out and touched this world, bringing his Glow to us. It remains to this day, a reminder
“Atomreachedoutandtouchedthisworld,bringinghisGlowtous. Itremainstothisday,areminder
of his promise. Infinite worlds through division.” The survival of the cult in the normally instantly
ofhispromise. Infiniteworldsthroughdivision.”Thesurvivalofthecultinthenormallyinstantly
fatal environment is rationalized as being a supernatural gift:
fatalenvironmentisrationalizedasbeingasupernaturalgift:
“That is Atom’s unique gift to us, the true believers.
“HTeh haatsis bArotoumgh’st uuns ihqeuree gtoif tthtoisu psl,atchee, atr upelabcee ltiehvaet rcsa.nnot harm us, so that we may worship
him. So that we may spread his word to others.
Hehasbroughtusheretothisplace,aplacethatcannotharmus,sothatwemayworship
That is our calling. To deliver Atom’s message to a world that does not wish to hear it. To
him. Sothatwemayspreadhiswordtoothers.
show Atom's power to all.”
Religions2018,9,169 9of20
Thatisourcalling. TodeliverAtom’smessagetoaworldthatdoesnotwishtohearit. To
showAtom'spowertoall.”
Religions 2017, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20
Religions 2017, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

Figure 4. Atom’s place of worship, next to a radiated water crater, in the Glowing Sea.
Figure4.Atom’splaceofworship,nexttoaradiatedwatercrater,intheGlowingSea.
Figure 4. Atom’s place of worship, next to a radiated water crater, in the Glowing Sea.
In the Far Harbor DLC, players can join the church after completing a quest that resembles an
initiaIItnnio ttnhh eer itFFuaaarr l,HH taoar rbsboeorer kDD LtLhCCe, ,p“pSlaalaycyereersdr s cEacLnaEn jMojionEi nNthTtehS ec, hgcuuhriucdrhec hatofta eAfrt etcoromcmo’spm lHeptOlienLtgiYn ag wqaourqedsu”te ts(hFtaitgth uraertese r5em)s,eb wmlehsb ilacenhs
aitnunirtniianst ioitoiuantt itrooint ubear iltt,h uteao l P,seetreoiko sdtehiece kT “atShbalecer “(eFSdiag cEurLereEd M6E).EL UNEpMToSEn, NgduoTiiSdn,geg stuooi ,d Apetlaotymoe’rAss tHmomOeeL’tsY TH hweOo MLrdYo”t wh(Feorirg oduf” rteh( Fe5i )Fg, ouwgreh, tihc5h)e,
wtCuhhrinilcdsh roetunut’r stno ss bpoeiru titht etloe Pabedreeirot hdseiecn PTte afrrbioolemd (i FcAiTgtaoubmrele 6to()F. gUigupuiodrene 6dth)o.einmUg.p sToohn, epd lMoayioneTgrhss Emor,e (peFtli aTgyuherere sM 7mo) teshepetirrT ioth fie tsh Mteh oFet ohfgieg,r uthoreef
tCshhheriolFduordgee,ndt’hs i ens pCmihriiistlt d l(eraeatndo’emsr iscsp eginrlitot wflre)oa mwdeh Arost poenamst sfteroso mgduoAiwdtneo mAthtetoommg. ’usT ihwdeei lMlt haoenTmdh .gETurhi d(eFeiMsg tuohrTeeh p7El)ar sy(pFeirirg tiuto r itesh 7teh) pese pfriiigroiudtriiesc
tsthahberlofieu,g dtuheredei rsi nhB rimobuliesd.t e(dationmmici sgtl(oawto)m wichog lpoaws)sews hdoopwans sAestodmow’s nwAillt oamnd’s gwuiildleasn dthgeu pildaeysetrh teo pthlaey perertiootdhiec
ptaebrlieo,d tihcetiarb Bleib,lteh.e irBible.

Figure 5. The scroll that guides believers to Atom’s “HOLY word.”
Figure 5. The scroll that guides believers to Atom’s “HOLY word.”
Figure5.ThescrollthatguidesbelieverstoAtom’s“HOLYword.”
Inall,theFalloutgamesimagineaworlddestroyedbynuclearwarinwhichpreviousinstitutions,
religiousandotherwise,havebeendestroyed. Inthiscontext,oneofthefirstsettlementstheplayer
ofFallout3encountersisMegaton,whereonereligiousgroupiscentral. Thisgroup,theChurchof
theChildrenofAtom,worshipsAtom: amasculine,incomprehensiblyopaquedeificationofatomic
power. Atomispresentedasomnipresent,omniscientandomnipotentandisworshippedbybuilding
Religions2018,9,169 10of20
areligionaroundanundetonatednuclearbomb(inFallout3)andlaterbyexpandingchurchsitesto
irradiatedlands(Fallout4). Initsreverenceofatomicpower,exemplifiedthroughtheglorification
oftheperiodictable,ideasofdivisionandtheoriesofatomsfound“within”everything,theChurch
presentsaparodyofacontemporary‘science—religion’divideinpopularculture. Evenitsdirect
contrast,thereligionoftheTreeminders,whichopposestheChildrenofAtomthematically(revering
natureinsteadofscience),shouldbeseenasawayofdealingwiththeconsequencesofman-made
nuclear fall-out through religious metaphors. Both, importantly, appear possible only against the
backgroundofthetotalerasureofprevioushistoricalreligiousinstitutions.
Religions 2017, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20
Religions 2017, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

Figure 6. The Periodic Table that serves as the holy text of the Church of the Children of Atom.
Figure6.ThePeriodicTablethatservesastheholytextoftheChurchoftheChildrenofAtom.
Figure 6. The Periodic Table that serves as the holy text of the Church of the Children of Atom.

Figure 7. The MoThEr aids the player in their quest to become a member of the Church of the Children
oFfi gAutroem 7.. The MoThEr aids the player in their quest to become a member of the Church of the Children
Figure7.TheMoThEraidstheplayerintheirquesttobecomeamemberoftheChurchoftheChildren
of Atom.
ofAtom.
In all, the Fallout games imagine a world destroyed by nuclear war in which previous
institIunt ioanlls, , rthelei giFoaullso uatn dg oamtheesr wimisea,g hinave e ab eweno rdldes tdroeysterdo.y Iend t hbisy connutcelxeta,r o nwea orf tinh e wfirhsitc she tptlreemvieonutss
3.2. Horizon: ZeroDawn,“MotherNatureasanAIandtheUltimateKillerApp”
tihnest iptulatyioenr so, fr eFlailglioouut s3 a enndc oouthnetrewrsi sise ,M haevgea tboene,n w dheesrtreo oyneed .r Ienli gthioisu cso gnrtoeuxpt, oisn cee onft rthale. fTirhsits s gerttoluemp,e tnhtes
Cthheu prEclahliy soeafrb teohtfeh F CSahloloibluedtcr ke3n: e “onWfc oAhuatnottmiefr,w sw eisoc roMsuhledigpagsti vAoento,l imwfe—h: aea rmef uaotsnucerue lr?ienlWeig, hiionautcosif mgwrpoeruceophu eilnsd scbiebunliyltdr oaapl. kaTiqnhudieso dgfersoiefeuidcp,a,t itohne
oCfh autrofcrmohm ioc fwp tohhiwec hCe,rho. inAldatrodemena iodsf p pAlartenosemet,n,l tiwefedoc raossuh loidpmbsn lAoisptsoroemmse: anan tme, woam?scTnuhilsiicsnieies,n ittnh aecnoadmim op—mretnhhieepnhosotiepbnel–yt o aofnpPdar qoisjue ecwt d:oZersiefhriciopatpieodn
boyf abtuoDmialdwicinn p:got oaw cerrere.la itAgeitoaonsmu a piresor pu-irnnedtse elalningte eundnt ,adfsue otllomyn-naauitpetodrme snaeutnecdtl,e toaemrrr banfoiosmrcmibei nn(tgi nas nyFsdatl elomomu—tn 3aipn) odatnbedrni tn lagantleidfre ibbsy awc ekoxfrrpsoahmnipdpinedg
cbhyu brculihifle dsleiitsnesgns etaso s r.ierWrliaghdiaoitantw eaodru olladunnsdudsc ha(Fnaa sullyonsudttee m4to).rn eIaqntu eiitdrse ?rneuAvcetlreietasnr ccboero oem,f ibatt wo(imonu iFlcda plnlooeweudte a3r,)t erauxneedmA lIpa.ltFiefurie llbdyy tc haerpxoapubalgnehd itnhge
gchlourricfihc astiitoens toof itrhrea dpieartieodd ilca ntadbsl e(F, aidlleoaust o4)f. d Iniv iitssi ornev aenrden tchee oorfi easto omf aict opmows feoru, enxde “mwpiltihfiiend” tehvreoruygthhi nthge,
tghloe rCifhicuartciohn p orfe sthene tps ear ipoadriocd tayb olef ,a i dcoeanst eomf dpiovriasriyo n‘s acniedn tchee—orrieelsig oiof na’t odmivsi dfoeu innd p “owpuitlhairn c”u eltvuerrey.t Ehivnegn,
itthse d Cirheuctr ccho nptrreasset,n tths ea r pelairgoiodny ooff tah eco Tnrteeemmpinordaerrys ,‘ swciheinchce o—prpeolsigeiso tnh’e d Civhiidlde rienn p oofp Autloamr c tuhletumrae.t iEcavlelyn
(irtse vdeirreincgt cnoantturares t,i nthstee aredl igofio snc ioefn tchee), Tsrheoeumldin dbee rsse, ewnh aicsh a o wppaoys oesf tdheea Clinhgil dwreitnh otfh Ae tcoomns tehqeumenatciecsa lolyf
m(reavne-mrinagd en antuucrlee ainr sftaelal-do uotf tshcireonucgeh), rsehloiguilodu sb em seeteanp haos ras . wBaoyth o, fi mdepaolirntagn wtlyit,h a tphpee acor npsoesqsuibelnec eosn loyf
amgaanin-mst atdhee bnauccklgearor ufnaldl- oouf tth teh rtootuagl he rraesluigreio oufs p mreevtiaopuhso hriss. toBroitcha,l rimelipgoiortuasn itnlys,t iatuptpioenars . possible only
against the background of the total erasure of previous historical religious institutions.
3.2. Horizon: Zero Dawn, “Mother Nature as an AI and the Ultimate Killer App”
3.2. Horizon: Zero Dawn, “Mother Nature as an AI and the Ultimate Killer App”
Elisabeth Sobeck: “What if we could give life—a future? What if we could build a kind of seed,
fErloimsa bwehtihch S, oobne ac kd:e a“dW phlaatn eift ,w lief ec coouuldld g bivloes sliofme— aan efwut?u rTeh?i sW ish atht ei fa iwme— cotuhled h boupiel–do fa Pkrinojde cotf: sZeeerdo,
Dfroamw nw: htoic chr,e oante aa dsueapde rp-ilnanteeltl,i gliefne tc, ofuulldly b-aloustsoomma taende twer?r aTfhorism iisn tgh sey asitmem——thaen hdo bprei–nogf lPifreo bjeacctk: fZroermo
Dawn: to create a super-intelligent, fully-automated terraforming system—and bring life back from