Pollution in the Black Sea: Observations about the Ocean's Pollution PDF
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Springer Oceanography Konstantin Pokazeev Elena Sovga Tatiana Chaplina Pollution in the Black Sea Observations about the Ocean’s Pollution Springer Oceanography TheSpringerOceanographyseriesseekstopublishabroadportfolioofscientificbooks, aimingatresearchers,students,andeveryoneinterestedinmarinesciences.Theseries includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, and conference proceedings. It covers the entire area of oceanography including, but not limited to, Coastal Sciences, Biological/Chemical/Geological/Physical Oceanography, Paleo- ceanography,andrelatedsubjects. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10175 Konstantin Pokazeev Elena Sovga (cid:129) (cid:129) Tatiana Chaplina Pollution in the Black Sea ’ Observations about the Ocean s Pollution 123 Konstantin Pokazeev ElenaSovga Faculty of Physics ShelfHydrophysics Department M.V.LomonosovMoscowStateUniversity Marine Hydrophysical Institute of RAS Moscow,Russia Sevastopol, Russia Tatiana Chaplina Institute for Problems in Mechanics of the RAS Moscow,Russia ISSN 2365-7677 ISSN 2365-7685 (electronic) SpringerOceanography ISBN978-3-030-61894-0 ISBN978-3-030-61895-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61895-7 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNature SwitzerlandAG2021 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseof illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfrom therelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained hereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregard tojurisdictionalclaimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Introduction The World Ocean is a huge but very fragile system. This has become particularly evident in recent decades, when ocean water pollution has reached unprecedented levels. Meanwhile, not only the well-being of ocean ecosystems depends on the stateofoceanwaters,buthumancivilizationitselfislargelydependentontheocean since it influences weather and determines the climate of the entire planet. That is why ocean pollution has become one of the most serious environmental problems of our time. As a result of human activities, a huge amount of pollutants enters the world’s oceans through direct discharge of industrial and domestic sewage, burial of toxic andradioactivematerials,emergencysituations,mainlandrunoff,shipping,mining, as well as through the atmosphere and with river runoff. Today’s human impact on the marine environment consists mainly of an increaseintherateofpollutantsenteringtheworld’soceansandanincreaseinthe type of pollution. Ocean pollution occurs at both the regional and global levels. This process alters the content of various pollutants in the world’s oceans. The oceans and seas cover three-quarters of the Earth’s surface, making them natural receptors of pollution from the global circulation of the ocean and atmo- sphere. The seas have been and continue to be actively used for various types of waste disposal. In the offshore areas of the seas, which are areas of high human activity, the impact of pollution is greater than in the open ocean. Inland seas such as the Black, Azov, Baltic and Caspian Seas are particularly pronetopollution.Thecomplexnatureoftheprocessesthatdeterminethepollution of inland seas makes it verydifficult to analyzetheirecological statusand develop effectivemethodstocombatpollution,developrecommendationsonenvironmental issues. This edition isdedicated todescribing the Black Sea pollution, which isamong the most polluted seas on the planet. Two decades ago, many believed that the BlackSeawoulddieinthecomingyears.However,themarineecosystemhasbeen preserved. The book has the following structure. The first six chapters give an overview of the pollution of the seas. The main focus is on chemical pollution, oil and its v vi Introduction products,methodsofcleaningtheseasurface,contaminationwithplastics.Thenext fivechaptersdescribethepollutionoftheBlackSea,theimpactontheecosystems of the Black Sea coastal zone, the self-cleaning properties of the sea and the measures taken to limit pollution. The last two chapters discuss monitoring issues. Thefirstchapterdiscussesthemostgeneralmonitoringissues,andthefinalchapter deals with monitoring methods used in the Black Sea. Chapter 1 provides general concepts about pollution and contaminants. Natural andanthropogenicsourcesofpollutionintheworld’soceansareanalyzed.Modern problems of pollution of the World Ocean by the following pollutants and certain typesofpollution,amongwhich:oilandoilproducts;wateracidification;runoff— domestic waste discharged into the ocean; thermal pollution; electromagnetic pol- lution; radioactive pollution; chemical pollution; biological pollution are consid- ered. According to a widely accepted classification, three groups of pollutants are identified: conserved, nutrient and water-soluble. The migration patterns of pollu- tants and their transformation at the ocean–atmosphere, ocean-bottom sediments and ocean-terrestrial boundaries are considered. The sources and destruction of organic matter in the aquatic environment are considered. Chapter 2 gives an overview of information on the causes, sources and current levels of microplastics contamination of the world’s oceans. By microplastics we meanplasticparticleslessthan5mminsize.Ithasbeenshownthatthelongevityof microplastics, combined with the lack of effective recycling facilities, has made marine plastics and microplastics a global problem. The destruction processes of plastics in marine areas are described. It is shown that the main mechanism of microplastics generation is the destruction of larger plastic materials entering the marine environment. The classification of degradation processes of microplastics and conditions of its biodegradation are analyzed. Toxic effect of plastics and especially microplastics onmarineenvironmentand biota isdiscussed. It isshown thattheproblemofmicroplasticsintheoceanisfarfrombeingsolvedandrequires further detailed study. Chapters3and4discusstheproblemofoceanpollutionbyoilandoilproducts and show the dynamics of their distribution depending on the composition of oil andoilproducts.Themainanthropogenicandnaturalsourcesofoilpollutioninthe WorldOceanaredescribed.Itisshownthattheareasofglobaloilpollutionofthe seas coincide with the routes of maritime traffic and the estuaries of the largest rivers. Oil degradation processes in the marine environment are analyzed, which include evaporation, emulsification, solubility, oxidation, formation of aggregates, sedimentationandbiodegradation,includingmicrobialdestructionandassimilation byplanktonandbenthicorganisms.Thedynamicsoftheoilslickanditsimpacton the characteristics of the boundary layers of the atmosphere and ocean are dis- cussed.Chapter4discussesmethodsformodelingthehydrocarbonslickonthesea surface.Chapter5brieflydescribesthemethodsandtechniquesusedtocleanupoil spillsatsea.Thepossiblesourcesofoilandoilproductsspillsandthelikelyrisksof oil spills during onshore and offshore production, as well as during storage and transportationofoilandoilproductsduetoaccidents,areclassified.Areviewofthe existing methods andsorbentsfor liquidating hydrocarbons from the water surface Introduction vii is given, and their characteristics and the principle of operation of the devices currentlyusedforoilspillresponsearestudied.Anoriginalmethodofhydrocarbon spill response using natural sorbent—natural sheep’s wool—is proposed. Chapter 5 briefly addresses marine ecosystems. The functioning of marine ecosystems is analyzed. The classification of the main types of marine ecosystems by depth of location and energy used is described. The spatial organization of energy and substance flows in the marine ecosystem is given. The reasons for different bioproductivity of the World Ocean ecosystems are discussed. Factors affecting the productivity of primary trophic level of marine ecosystems are ana- lyzed. Energy and substance transport by depth and the role offood chains in this processareconsidered.ThebiologicalpollutionoftheWorldOceanisconsidered, andtheinfluenceofbiologicalpollutiononthefunctioningofmarineecosystemsis shown. Targeted introduction of “useful” fauna species by humans is considered. Chapter6isdevotedtoabriefoceanographicdescriptionoftheBlackSea.The uniquefeaturesoftheBlackSeahydrologyareconsidered,duetoitsisolationfrom the World Ocean and its specific connection with it, a large catchment area from which a significant amount of pollution comes, the presence of a pronounced vertical density stratification of waters, leading to a sharp stratification of the sea intoathindesalinatedupperlayeranddeepsalinelayer.Themostimportantfeature of the Black Sea is the presence of a hydrogen sulfide zone, which occupies about 90% of the sea volume. The history of the study of the Black Sea is briefly described.Modernideasaboutthespecificsofwatercirculationintheseaaregiven. It is shown that the main reason for regional differences in climatic changes in the Black Sea from other areas of the World Ocean is the two-layer hydrological structure of waters and the inland position of the sea. The history of the formation of the Black Sea basin is briefly described. Next Chap. 7 gives an overview of current views on the peculiarities of Black Sea circulation processes and their influence on the formation of the Black Sea hydrochemicalregime.Themaincauses offormationandthemainmechanisms of functioningoftheseasulfidezoneareconsidered.Theinfluenceoffreshrunoffinto the sea, 70% of which comes from industrial areas of Europe, is discussed. Estimates of the average monthly values of upward and downward flows of inor- ganic nitrogen and phosphorus compounds in the deep sea photosynthesis zone oftheBlackSeaaregiven,obtainedonthebasisofaveragingthedataoflong-term observations on the vertical distribution of nitrates and phosphates, as well as calculations of rates of excretion of biogenic elements by plankton organisms. Estimates offlows of mineral forms of nitrogen in the deep sea are given, taking into account their inflow from external sources and exchange processes between layers (surface, deep and near-bottom) of water in the sea. Chapter 8 deals with the peculiarities of distribution of flora and fauna in the Black Sea taking into account its uniqueness—division into oxygen and hydrogen sulfide zones. The main representatives of the Black Sea flora and fauna are described.SpecialattentionispaidtothemarinefishspeciesoftheBlackSeawith a detailed description of the features of the Black Sea fishing for fish such as the Black Sea Hamsa, Sprat and Mackerel. Current and past catches offish are briefly viii Introduction presented. The prospects for improving the efficiency of the fisheries and oppor- tunities for aquaculture development in the Black Sea are discussed. Chapter9considersthemainsourcesofpollutionintheBlackSea.Thedataon theBlackSeapollutionlevelsofoilproducts,heavymetals,householdsolidwaste, plastics and sea radioactive pollution are analyzed. The processes of transport, transformation and disposal of pollutants are considered, and estimates of nutrient inputs to the sea are given, causing eutrophication of shallow coastal waters. The contribution of the Black Sea states to the Black Sea pollution with oil products is discussed. It is shown that the biggest threat of sea pollution by oil products is the construction of new oil storage facilities and the discharge of oil-containing (ballast) water from ships. Detailed estimates are given of oil pol- lution in the South Coast of Crimea, Sevastopol Bay and the East Coast of the BlackSea.Itisshownthattheeutrophicationlevelisrelatedtolocaldischargesof domesticuntreatedorpoorlytreatedwastewaterintothecoastalwatersofBlackSea towns. The most heavily polluted bays and bays of large cities are Sevastopol, Yalta, Novorossiysk, Gelen-dzhik, Sukhumi, Poti, Batumi and the Pitsunda area. The information on the Black Sea Track Web (BSTW) operational system for forecastingoilspillspreadisgiven.Bytheexampleofthenorthwesternshelfofthe Black Sea, the level of eutrophication of shallow sea areas is estimated, and the causesandconsequencesofhypoxiaandfrostzonesformationinthestudiedwater areaaredetermined.Modernestimatesofthelevelofcontaminationofbeachesand the coastal zone with solid domestic waste and plastic are given. The level of microplastics pollution of Sevastopol beaches and the East Coast of the sea is analyzed. The radioactive contamination of the sea is considered in the aspect of the assessment of the consequences for the sea of the world’s largest accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) in 1986. Thenature,genesisanddistributionofmethaneintheBlackSeaareconsidered. It isshown that jet methane gas emissions from thesea bottom are confined to the estuary sections of rivers, shelf edge, continental slope, as well as areas of mud volcanism. Methane flows from bottom sediments to water and from water to the atmosphere have been analyzed. The special environmental role of the process of anaerobicmethaneoxidation,whichisaneffectivemechanismpreventingmethane from entering the water column into the atmosphere, is emphasized. International conventions and agreements of the Black Sea countries aimed at reducing the level of pollution in the Black Sea are briefly outlined. Chapter10explorestheself-cleaningcapacityofshallowBlackSeaecosystems. The analysis of two methods to assess the self-cleaning capacity of marine ecosystems (balance and synoptic) by calculating the assimilation capacity of shallow marine ecosystems is presented. By the example of individual Black Sea marine areas, the expediency of spatial (zoning) (Dnepro–Bugsky estuary, SevastopolBay)andtemporal(seasonality)(waterareaoftheOdessaport)detailed assessment of the assimilation capacity of ecosystems in relation to various con- taminant complexes is shown. Introduction ix According to the data of long-term monitoring observations of inorganic nitro- gen content in seawaters of the Sevastopol Bay, the balance method assessed the assimilation capacity of ecosystems and E-TRIX trophicity index of the eastern, central, western parts of the bay and the southern part of the bay in relation to nitrites, nitrates and ammonium as priority elements of the biogenic complex in storm andmunicipalrunoff.Theexample ofthecentralpartoftheSevastopol Bay shows the assessment of the assimilation capacity of the marine ecosystem in relation to oil products, as a priority pollutant for areas of developed shipping, performed using the synoptic method. Chapter11discussesthemainobjectivesoftheenvironmentalmonitoringofthe oceans and seas and the problems encountered in their implementation. The main components of the environmental monitoring of the oceans and seas (physical, geochemical and biological) and their goals and objectives are considered. The urgency of organizing effective environmental monitoring of the World Ocean in the production activities of the world’s largest companies of the fuel and energy complex on the sea shelf is shown. TheUnifiedStateInformationSystemontheWorldOcean(USIMO),developed in Russia, is considered. The objectives of global, national, regional, local, impact monitoring and their correlation are considered in detail. Information is provided on the distribution of responsibilities among Russian governmentauthoritiesinimplementingvariouslevelsofenvironmentalmonitoring. Modern methods and means of ecological monitoring of the environment are considered.Theclassificationofecologicalmonitoringofenvironmentbysourcesof influence,factorsofinfluenceandstudiednaturalenvironmentsisresulted.Modern methods and means of ecological monitoring of World Ocean with an accent on development of technical means of system of complex multilevel ecological mon- itoring inareas offunctioning of seaoil andgas complexesare analyzed. The final chapter presents an analysis of the structure of environmental moni- toring oftheBlack Sea,itsmeansandmethodsadoptedintheRussianFederation. The standards adopted in Roskom Hydromet of Russia on methods of analysis, schemesofmarinesamplingstationslocation,analyzedparameters,peculiaritiesof formation of the state observation network are described. The differences in EuropeanandRussiansystemsofecologicalmonitoringofmarineenvironmentare considered. The latest achievements of satellite monitoring of the Black Sea in Russia and prospects for its development are analyzed. The possibilities of space information systemsforthecalculationofprimaryproductionindifferentareasoftheBlackSea are shown on specific examples. The changes that have taken place in the structure and tasks of environmental monitoring of the Black Sea, adopted in the Black Sea countries after 1992 on the example of Ukraine, are described. Implementation of the International EMBLAS project “Improvement of Environmental Monitoring in the Black Sea”, funded by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the European Community (EC), is under discussion.
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