Politics of Sexuality We live in an age when sex, gender and sexualities can no longer be presumed to be non-political, pre-political or even marginal. Political activity and activism around sexual politics have pervaded and transformed the political agenda. As a consequence, these developments have given rise to significant changes in all areas of political life, from electoral politics and local government to public policy and international relations. This book recognises sexuality as a mainstream concept in political analysis and explores issues in the politics of sexuality that are highly salient and contro- versial today These include conceptions of citizenship and nationality linked to gender and sexuality, the legislation about the age of consent, prostitution and ‘trafficking in women’, the international politics of population control, abortion and sexual harassment, and sexuality in the military The international team of contributors provides a wide range of perspectives in a variety of contexts. On a national level they offer illustrative case studies from the UK, Ireland, the Netherlands, Spain and Israel, among others, and on an international plane they cover the European Union, the UN Conference on Population and Development and the role of the Vatican as an international arbiter. Moreover, the volume addresses the interaction between political discourse and the work of major theorists such as Weber, Freud, Foucault, Irigaray and Butler. Politics of Sexuali proposes new methodological enquiries on the definition of sexuality and its role in politics, and furthers the debate on how sexual politics determines and constructs the identities of citizens. A rich and challenging addi- tion to the literature of political science, this volume will interest all those who seek to explore the political and intellectual changes associated with the emer- gence of sexuality as a political issue. Terrell Carver is Professor of Political Theory at the University of Bristol, UK. Viironique Mottier teaches social theory and interpretive methodologies at the University of Geneva, Switzerland. The contributors are: Delila Amir, Mark Bell, Orly Benjamin, David Boothroyd, Terrell Carver, Alan Finlayson, John R. Gibbins, Katrina Gorjanicyn, Gail Hawkes, Stevi Jackson, Moya Lloyd, Veronique Mottier, Palena R. Neale, Joyce Outshoorn, Momin Rahman, Paul Skidmore, Celia Valiente and Matthew Waites. ROUTLEDGE/ECPR STUDIES IN EUROPEAN POLITICAL SCIENCE Edited by Hans Keman, Vie Universi& the JVetherlunds, and Jan W van Deth, Universip of Mannheim, Germany, on behay of the European Consortium for Political Research The Routledge/ECPR Studies in European Political Science Series is published in associ- ation with the European Consortium for Political Research - the leading organisation concerned with the growth and development of political science in Europe. The series presents high-quality edited volumes on topics at the leading edge of current interest in political science and related fields, with contributions from European scholars and others who have presented work at ECPR workshops or research groups. Regionalist Parties in Western Europe Edited by Lieven de Winter and Huri Tursan Comparing Party System Change Edited by Jan-Erik Lane and Paul Pennings Political Theory of European Constitutional Choice Edited Jy Michael Nentwich and Albert Weale Politics of Sexuality Edited lp T&e11 Carver and Kronique Mot&r Autonomous Policy-making by International Organisations Edited by Bob Reinalda and Bertjan VZbeek Social Capital and European Democracy Edited bJan van Deth, Marco Maraji, Km Newton and Paul Wbiteley Also available from Routledge in association with the ECPR: Sex Equal@ Policy in Western Europe, edited by Frances Gardiner; Democracy and Green Political Thought, edited by Brian Doherty and Marius de Geus; The New Politics of lJnem&yment, edited by Hugh Compston; Citiznship Democracy and Justice in the New Europe, edited by Percy B. Lehning and Albert Weale; Private Croups and Public L& edited by Jan W. van Deth; The Political Context of Collective Action,, edited by Ricca Edmonson; Theories of Secession, edited by Percy Lehning; Regionalism Across the North/South Divide, edited by Jean Grugel and Wil Hout. Politics of sexuality Identity, gender, citizenship Edited by Terrell Carver and Wronique Mottier London and New York First published 1998 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 0 1998 Terrell Carver and VCronique Mottier, selection and editorial matter; individual chapters, the contributors Typeset in Baskerville by Routledge Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Libra? of Congreu Catalogirg in Publication Data Politics of Sexuality / edited by Terrell Carver and Vtronique Mottier. p. cm. ~ (Routledge/ECPR Studies in European Political Science ; 4) ‘Initially and largely the result of a workshop on The Politics of Sexuality at the joint sessions of the European Consortium for Political Research, held at Oslo in the spring of 1996’ - Editorial introd. Includes bibliographical references @. ) and index. 1. Sex-Political aspects. 2. Sex and law. I. Carver, Terrell. II. Mottier, VCronique. III. Series. HQ23.P66 1998 306.74~21 98-21485 ISBN o-415-16953-4 Contents . . . Contributors Vlll Seriese ditor’sp reface Xl . . . Acknowledgements x111 Introduction 1 TERRELL CARVER AND VkRONIQUE MOTTIER PART I Citizens’ sexualities: (difference’ and unequal treatment 1 Sexual citizenship: gendered and de-gendered narratives 13 TERRELL CARVER 2 Sexual citizens: legislating the age of consent in Britain 25 MATTHEW WAITES 3 Sexuality and the law: the body as politics 36 JOHN R. GIBBINS 4 Sexuality and the UK armed forces: judicial review of the ban on homosexuality 46 PAUL SKIDMORE 5 Sexual orientation and anti-discrimination policy: the European Community 58 MARK BELL vi Contents 6 Sexual politics: feminist politics, gay politics and the problem of heterosexuality 68 STEVI JACKSON 7 Sexuality and rights: problematising lesbian and gay politics 79 MOMIN RAHMAN PART II Theorisationsofsexuality:identities andpolitical agency 8 Sexuality and nationality: gendered discourses of Ireland 91 ALAN FINLAYSON 9 Sexuality and civilisation: Weber and Freud 102 GAIL HAWKES 10 Sexuality and sexology: Michel Foucault 113 VkRONIQUE MOTTIER 11 Sexual politics, performativity, parody: Judith Butler 124 MOYA LLOYD 12 Sexual politics and sexual difference: Lute Irigaray 135 DAVID BOOTHROYD PART III Commodificationofsexuality:economicactivityand publicpolicy 13 Sexuality and the International Conference on Population and Development: the Catholic Church in international politics 147 PALENA R. NEALE 14 Sexuality and the female national subject: contraception and abortion policy in Israel 158 DELILA AMIR AND ORLY BENJAMIN Contents vii 15 Sexual harassment in the workplace: equality policies in post-authoritarian Spain 169 CELIA VALIENTE 16 Sexuality and work: contrasting prostitution policies in Victoria and Queensland 180 KATRINA GORJANICYN 17 Sexuality and international commerce: the traffic in women and prostitution policy in the Netherlands 190 JOYCE OUTSHOORN Index 200 Contributors Delila Amir teaches in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Tel- Aviv University, and she is the Coordinator of the Women’s Studies Forum there. Her recent research is about ‘being an immigrant and a woman’, docu- mented in research reports and articles in Hebrew and English. She is the author of The Politics of Abortion in Israel, and of the forthcoming book Abortion in Israeljom an International and a Fminist Perpective. She was a member of the Israeli Government Commission on Reproductive Technologies and Surrogacy, and a Government Delegate to the UN Conference on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994. Mark Bell is a graduate in Government and Law from the University of Ulster. Currently he is undertaking doctoral research at the European University Institute on EU policy concerned with discrimination on grounds of race and sexual orientation. He has published an article on the 1996 Intergovernmental Conference and has written a chapter on racism and the European Community for an edited volume on racism, ethnicity and Northern Ireland. Orly Benjamin is a junior member of the faculty in the Department of Sociology at Bar-Ilan University. Her teaching .and research interests are in gender relations and the sociology of emotions. She is co-author of articles on ‘Abortion approval as a ritual of symbolic control’ and ‘The importance of difference: reconceptualizing the increased flexibility in gender relations at home’. David Boothroyd studied philosophy at the universities of Essex and Warwick and is Course Leader for Cultural Studies at the University of Teesside. He has published articles and chapters on European philosophy and cultural theory, and is currently working on a book entitled Culture on Drugs: flarco- Cultural Studies of H@h Moderni~, for Manchester University Press. Terrell Carver is Professor of Political Theory at the University of Bristol. He has written many books and articles on Marx, Engels and Marxism, and has recently re-translated Marx’s Later Political Writings. In the area of gender studies and sexuality he has published Gender Zs Not a Synonym for Women, a Contributors ix chapter ‘A political theory of gender: perspectives on the universal subject’ (in Gendq Politicsa nd the State), and two articles: ‘Theorizing men in Engels’s Or&n of th Farnib’ and “‘Public man” and the critique of masculinity’. Alan Finlayson is Lecturer in Politics and Cultural Studies at The Queen’s University of Belfast. He is author of articles on theories of nationalism and national identity, and is currently working on a study of the concept of community in Western politics and political theory John Gibbins is Principal Lecturer in Social Policy at the University of Teesside, and is a member of Wolfson College, Cambridge. He is co-founder of the journal Theory, Culture and So&p, and his teaching and research are in philosophy and social theory, sexuality and politics. He is the author (with Bo Reimer) of the forthcoming book The Politicso f Postmodernip. Katrina Gorjanicyn is Associate Lecturer in Politics and Policy Studies at Deakin University. She has also taught at the departments of political science at the University of Melbourne, and at Swinburne University. She is currently completing her PhD dissertation, which focuses on prostitution law reform in Victoria and Queensland 1982-1992, and she has published articles and chapters on Australian and European politics. Gail Hawkes has degrees in sociology from the Victoria University of Manchester, and is currently researching and writing on historical construc- tions of sexual pleasure. She is author of A Sociologyo f Sexa nd Sexualig. Stevi Jackson is Professor of Women’s Studies and Director of the Centre of Women’s Studies at the University of York. She is the author of Christine Delphr and co-editor (with Sue Scott) of Feminisma nd Sexualip and (with Jackie Jones) of ContemporaryF minist Theories. Forthcoming books include Concerning Heterosexualip. Moya Lloyd was educated at the University of Warwick and teaches politics and political theory at The Queen’s University of Belfast. She has written arti- cles and papers on Foucault and feminism, and feminism and the body She has co-edited The Impact of Michel Foucault on th.eS ocial Scienceas nd Humanities, and is currently working on a book entitled A FeministP oliticso f oi$-ence. VBronique Mottier teaches in the Department of Political Science at the University of Geneva, specialising in social theory and discourse analysis. She has degrees in sociology and political science from the University of Geneva, and a Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge. She has published on Foucault, sexual politics, and interpretative methodologies. Palena R. Neale has recently completed her Ph.D. at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth, entitled ‘Construction, Catholicism and Cairo: the Catholic construction of woman, the Holy See, and the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD)‘. She holds degrees from the University of Manitoba and the University of Hull. She has presented numerous x Contributors conference papers, and has conducted interviews with UN, governmental and Vatican diplomats who were negotiators at the UN-sponsored International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, 1994. Joyce Outshoorn studied political science and contemporary history at the University of Amsterdam, and is currently Professor of Women’s Studies at the University of Leiden. Her publications include chapters on ‘The stability of compromise: abortion politics in western Europe’ (in Abortion Politics: Public Policy in Cross-cultural Perspective), and (with J. Swiebel) ‘Feminism and the state in the Netherlands’ (in Women’s Movements and Public Policy in Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean). Momin Rahman is completing a Ph.D. at the University of Strathclyde and is currently a Teaching Fellow in Sociology at the University of Stirling. His main areas of research are the social construction of sexuality and difference, and democratic theory His forthcoming publications include Sexual@ and Democracy: Identities and Stratqiks in L.esbian and Gay Politics. Paul Skidmore is Lecturer in the Department of Law at the University of Bristol, and is a graduate of the University of Cambridge and the European University Institute. He is currently researching legal issues that arise around gays and lesbians in the workplace, and he has published articles in the field of UK employment law. Celia Valiente is Lecturer in Sociology at the Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. Her major area of research is comparative public policy with an analytical focus on gender. Her Ph.D. dissertation was on ‘Public Policies for Women Workers in Italy and Spain 1900-1991’ (in Spanish), and she has published a chapter ‘The Power of Persuasion: The Instituto de la Mu& in Spain’ in Comparative Statz Feminism. Matthew Waites is an ESRC-funded Ph.D. student at South Bank University, having previously studied politics at the University of Bristol and gaining a Masters degree in sociology of culture from the University of Essex. His research interests are in examining the relationships between consenting sexual relations and citizenship in the UK. His publications include an article ‘Lesbian and gay theory, sexuality and citizenship’, in Contemporary Politics.