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Politics in India This second edition of this textbook brings together general political theory and the comparative method to interpret socio-political phenomena and issues that have occu- pied the Indian state and society since 1947. It considers the progress that India has made in some of the most challenging aspects of post-colonial politics such as governance, democracy, economic growth, welfare, and citizenship. Looking at the changed global role of India, its standing in the G-20 and BRICS, as well as the implications of the 2014 Indian general elections for state and society, this updated edition also includes sections on the changing socio-political status of women in India, corruption and terrorism. The author raises several key questions relevant to Indian politics, including: • Why has India succeeded in making a relatively peaceful transition from colonial rule to a resilient, multi-party democracy in contrast to the South Asian neighbours? • How has the interaction of modern politics and traditional society contributed to the resilience of post-colonial democracy? • How did India’s economy—moribund for several decades following Independ- ence—make a breakthrough into rapid growth and can India sustain it? • And finally, why have collective identity and nationhood emerged as the core issues for India in the twenty-first century and with what implications for Indian democracy? The textbook goes beyond India by asking about the implications of the Indian case for the general and comparative theory of the post-colonial state. The factors which might have caused failures in democracy and governance are analysed and incorporated as variables into a model of democratic governance. In addition to pedagogical features such as text boxes, a set of further readings is provided to guide readers who wish to go beyond the remit of this text. The book will be essential reading for undergraduate students and researchers in South Asian and Asian studies, political science, development studies, sociology, comparative politics and political theory. Subrata K. Mitra is currently Visiting Research Professor and Director at the Insti- tute of South Asian Studies (ISAS, NUS) in Singapore and Professor Emeritus at the South Asia Institute, Heidelberg University, Germany. He has published a number of books with Routledge, including Modern Politics of South Asia (5 volumes, 2008) and The Puzzle of India’s Governance (2005). He is the series editor of the Routledge Advances in South Asian Studies. This page intentionally left blank Politics in India Structure, Process and Policy Second Edition Subrata K. Mitra Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders for their permission to reprint material in this book. The publishers would be grateful to hear from any copyright holder who is not here acknowledged and will undertake to rectify any errors or omissions in future editions of this book. First published 2011 by Routledge This edition published 2017 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 Subrata K. Mitra The right of Subrata K. Mitra to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him/her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been applied for ISBN: 978-1-138-01798-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-01813-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-77999-7 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by codeMantra The cover design depicts various facets of Indian Politics, which are distinctive in nature yet blend with one another, and come together, to give a holistic view. These are encompassed by the nation’s national bird – the peacock. It is symbolic of a young, jubilant India and its unity in diversity. Contents List of figures vii List of diagrams viii List of tables ix List of map xi List of boxes xii Preface xiii Abbreviations xviii Glossary xx 1 Introduction: modern politics and traditional society in the making of Indian democracy 1 2 Pre-modern pasts of modern politics: the legacies of British colonial rule 29 3 Politics and social change: from homo hierarchicus to an egalitarian and plural society 50 4 Strength with democracy: separation and division of powers, and the imperative of leadership 75 5 The federal structure: balancing national unity and regional diversity 102 6 Elections, political parties, demand groups and political movements: multiple modes of representation, articulation and aggregation of interests 126 7 Economic development and social justice 176 8 Engaging the world: foreign policy and nation-building in India 223 vi Contents 9 Democracy and development in a post-colonial context: the Indian puzzle 262 10 Conclusion: emergent India 281 11 Notes on further reading 292 Bibliography 301 Index 319 Figures 1.1 Structure, process and policy: the dynamics of India’s governance 6 1.2 Riots and murder in India (1953–2012) 14 3.1 Jajmani system 52 3.2 The social pyramid 52 4.1 India’s institutional arrangement 77 4.2 Presidents and Prime Ministers 84 6.1 The Congress system 152 6.2 Stalemated class conflict 169 7.1 Structure, process and power in planning under Nehru, 1953 183 7.2 Lines of control and exploitation in the zamindari system 196 8.1 Toolbox: domestic and international constraints on foreign policy 228 8.2 Specification of the general model to the context of domestic and international constraints on India’s foreign policy 228 9.1 Turning subjects into citizens: a dynamic neo-institutional model 269 9.2 Negotiating identity in divided societies: interface of individual values 277 Diagrams 5.1 Sub-national movements 105 7.1 GDP (current US$) of India and China as compared to the world 177 7.2 GDP per capita (current US$): India 178 7.3 GDP growth rate (annual %)—China, India as compared to the world 178 7.4 India’s food grain production 179 7.5 The composition of the Indian GDP (in percent)—agriculture, industry and services 180 7.6 1960–2014 trends in India’s GDP composition (in percent)—agriculture, industries and services 181 7.7 Real GDP growth for planning commission five year plans, 1951–2007 191 7.8 Openness index—Indian exports and imports of goods and services (% of GDP) 201 7.9 Openness index: India and China vs. world 202 7.10 India’s outward vs. inward FDI (2003–2013) 206 7.11 Official poverty estimates—India poverty headcount ratio at $1.25, at $2 and at the national poverty line. 210 7.12 Official poverty estimates (quinquennial surveys): poverty ratio (in percent). 211 7.13 Official poverty estimates (quinquennial surveys): number of poor (in millions). 211 9.1 Contrasting Hindu and Muslim attitudes on issues of identity and empowerment. 276 Tables 2.1 India’s GDP as a share of the world economy: 1–2001 AD (in percent) 37 3.1 Religion in India 58 3.2 Efficacy of vote (in percent) 68 3.3 Legitimacy (in percent) 69 3.4 Need for separate civil code for every community by party support (in percent) 70 4.1 The separation and division of powers in India 80 4.2 Trust in institutions (1999) 93 4.3 Trust in institutions (2009) 93 5.1 India’s evolving federalism 104 5.2 Union territories: India’s unconventional federal units 105 5.3 The federal distribution of powers 107 5.4 Interest in central and State government (in percent) 113 5.5 Loyalty to region first and then to India (in percent) 113 5.6 Trust in local/state/central government (in percent) 116 6.1 Parliamentary elections, 1952–2014 131 6.2 Lok Sabha elections, 1952–2014 (seats and percentage of votes) 134 6.3 State-wise vote swings: BJP and the Indian National Congress: 2009 and 2014 135 6.4 Vote share (%): INC and BJP among different social groups (2009–2014) 136 6.5 Results of Bihar assembly elections (2015) 141 6.6 Lok Sabha elections, 1952–71 seats (and percent of vote) 145 6.7a Lok Sabha elections, 1977–2009 seats (and percent of vote) 145 6.7b Lok Sabha elections, 2014 seats (and percent of vote) 146 6.8a Social bases of political parties (1996–2004) (in percent) 148 6.8b Social bases of political parties (2009–2014) (in percent) 149 6.9 Usefulness of political parties (in percent) 162 6.10 Partisan response to the demolition of Babri mosque (in percent) 163 6.11 Partisan opinion on Kashmir 163 6.12 India should develop friendly relations with Pakistan (in percent) 163 6.13 Need for separate civil code for every community by party support (in percent) 164 7.1 The human development index: India in comparative perspective 179 7.2 No free trade for foreign companies (in percent) 203