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POLITICAL THEORY Also by Andrew Heywood POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES: An Introduction POLITICS KEY CONCEPTS IN POLITICS Political Theory An Introduction Third Edition Andrew Heywood # Andrew Heywood 1994, 1999, 2004 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First edition published 1994 under the title Political Ideas and Concepts: An Introduction Reprinted five times Second edition published 1999 Third edition published 2004 Published by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN 0–333–96179–X hardback ISBN 0–333–96180–3 paperback A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 Printed and bound in China For Kate, Roger, Elsie and Stan . . . the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts. George Orwell, ‘Politics and the English Language’ If one listens one may be convinced; and a man who allows himself to be convinced by an argument is a thoroughly unreasonable person. Oscar Wilde, An Ideal Husband ‘When I use a word,’ Humpty Dumpty said, in rather a scornful tone, ‘it means just what I choose it to mean. Neither more or less.’ ‘The question is,’ said Alice, ‘whether you can make words mean so many different things.’ ‘The question is,’ said Humpty Dumpty, ‘who is the master. That is all.’ Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland Contents List of Boxes xii Preface to the third edition xv 1 Introduction: Concepts and Theories in Politics 1 Language and politics 2 Understanding political concepts 3 What is political theory? 6 Political theory in the twenty-first century 11 Summary 14 Further reading 14 2 Human Nature, the Individual and Society 15 Human nature 16 Nature versus nurture 17 Intellect versus instinct 20 Competition versus cooperation 23 The individual 26 Individualism 27 Individual and community 32 The individual in politics 37 Society 40 Collectivism 41 Theories of society 43 Social cleavages and identity 45 Summary 50 Further reading 50 3 Politics, Government and the State 51 Politics 52 The art of government 52 Public affairs 55 Power and resources 59 Government 65 Why have government? 66 Governments and governance 68 Political systems 73 vii The state 75 Government and the state 75 Theories of state 78 Role of the state 85 Summary 88 Further reading 88 4 Sovereignty, the Nation and Supranationalism 89 Sovereignty 90 Legal and political sovereignty 90 Internal sovereignty 92 External sovereignty 95 The nation 97 Cultural and political nations 98 Nationalism and cosmopolitanism 101 Nation-states and globalization 106 Supranationalism 109 Intergovernmentalism 110 Federalism and federations 113 Prospects of world government 116 Summary 119 Further reading 120 5 Power, Authority and Legitimacy 121 Power 122 Decision-making 123 Agenda-setting 125 Thought control 127 Authority 129 Power and authority 131 Kinds of authority 133 Defenders and detractors 136 Legitimacy 141 Constitutionalism and consent 143 Ideological hegemony 145 Legitimation crises 147 Summary 150 Further reading 151 viii Contents 6 Law, Order and Justice 152 Law 153 The rule of law 153 Natural and positive law 156 Law and liberty 159 Order 162 Discipline and control 163 Natural harmony 167 Justifying punishment 169 Justice 173 Procedural justice 174 Substantive justice 176 Justifying law-breaking? 178 Summary 183 Further reading 183 7 Rights, Obligations and Citizenship 184 Rights 185 Legal and moral rights 185 Human rights 188 Animal and other rights? 191 Obligations 196 Contractual obligations 198 Natural duty 200 Limits of political obligation 202 Citizenship 204 Elements of citizenship 204 Social or active citizenship? 209 Universal citizenship and diversity 213 Summary 218 Further reading 219 8 Democracy, Representation and the Public Interest 220 Democracy 221 Direct and indirect democracy 221 Liberal democracy 225 Virtues and vices of democracy 229 Contents ix Representation 232 Representatives or delegates? 233 Elections and mandates 235 Characteristic representation 237 The public interest 240 Private and public interests 240 Is there a public interest? 243 Dilemmas of democracy 245 Summary 251 Further reading 251 9 Freedom, Toleration and Liberation 252 Freedom 253 Liberty and licence 254 Negative freedom 258 Positive freedom 260 Toleration 264 Toleration and difference 264 The case for toleration 267 Limits of toleration 269 Liberation 272 National liberation 273 Sexual liberation 275 Politics of liberation 278 Summary 282 Further reading 283 10 Equality, Social Justice and Welfare 284 Equality 285 Formal equality 285 Equality of opportunity 289 Equality of outcome 291 Social justice 294 According to needs 295 According to rights 298 According to deserts 300 Welfare 303 Welfare, poverty and social exclusion 304 In praise of welfare 306 Welfare: roll-back or reform? 312 Summary 315 Further reading 315 x Contents 11 Property, Planning and the Market 316 Property 317 Private property 317 Common property 321 State property 323 Planning 324 The planning process 325 Promise of planning 327 Perils of planning 330 The market 332 The market mechanism 333 Miracle of the market 335 Market failures 340 Summary 343 Further reading 344 12 Tradition, Progress and Utopia 345 Tradition 346 Defending the status quo 346 Reclaiming the past 349 Change in order to conserve 351 Progress 353 The forward march of history 354 Progress through reform 355 Progress through revolution 361 Utopia 364 Features of utopianism 364 Political utopias 368 End of utopia? 370 Summary 374 Further reading 375 Bibliography 376 Index 388 Contents xi List of Boxes Thinkers Aquinas, Thomas 158 Arendt, Hannah 58 Aristotle 69 St Augustine of Hippo 91 Berlin, Isaiah 261 Burke, Edmund 348 Foucault, Michel 129 Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand 180 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 59 Hobbes, Thomas 123 Jefferson, Thomas 189 Kant, Immanuel 117 Kropotkin, Peter 26 Locke, John 268 Machiavelli, Niccolo` 54 Madison, James 232 Marx, Karl 371 Mill, John Stuart 256 Nietzsche, Friedrich 37 Nozick, Robert 318 Plato 21 Rawls, John 298 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 242 Wollstonecroft, Mary 288 Traditions and key figures Absolutism 164 Anticolonialism/postcolonialism 102 Communitarianism 35 Conservatism 138 Critical theory 279 Democracy 222 Ecologism 193 Feminism 62 xii Liberalism 29 Libertarianism 337 Marxism 82 Multiculturalism 215 Postmodernism 7 Rational choice theory 246 Republicanism 205 Social democracy 308 Utilitarianism 358 Utopianism 366 List of Boxes xiii This page intentionally left blank