Political Science, Intelligence and Area Studies

398 Pages·2017·9.5 MB·English

Resources in Cultural Studies for Palestinian Universities:
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Interdisciplinary Readings in English for Academic Purposes:
Political Science, Intelligence and Area Studies

G. R. Dominique
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The Jerusalem Chamber, Westminster Abbey, Public Domain, \https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Jerusalem_Chamber

Project Overview: Advanced Studies In English for the Social Sciences, General Science,s and Humanities
for Palestinian Universities
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PLEASE NOTE: Draft copies are generally available online and updated as the situation warrants. These coursebooks are intended for advanced
undergraduates and MA-level students who intend to apply for graduate work in universities abroad. Most are available online at “Academia.Edu”
[https://aqu.academia.edu/GinaDominique]

[Series One] Cultural Studies, Epistemic Practices, and Resistance Theory for Palestinian Universities
[Series Two] Resources in the Study of Academic Literacy and Aademic Discourse in English for Palestinian Universities
[Series Three] Resources in Cultural Studies for Palestinian Universities

Vol. 1. Cultural Studies, Epistemic Practices, And Resistance Theory for Palestinian Universities [English EFL] Critical Resistance And Cultural
Studies: An International, Interdisciplinary Curriculum For Palestinian Universities

The courses described in this catalogue form the basis of a proposed international and interdisciplinary curriculum for advanced studies in
Palestinian universities and, to a lesser extent, perhaps, delivered by means of online platforms.

Most of them, however, can be adapted for use in an honors undergraduate track—particularly for English majors and for those matriculating in the
Faculty of Arts with the intention of pursuing graduate studies abroad.

Vol. 2. Resources in Cultural Studies for Palestinian Universities: An Interactive Arabic-English Lexical Notebook for Advanced Undergraduate
and Graduate Students in the Social Sciences and Humanities

Vol. 3. Resources in the Study of Academic Discourse in English [EFL] for Palestinian Universities Discipline-Specific and Interdisciplinary
Lexicons, Academic Phraseology, and Conceptual Metaphors for the Social Sciences and Humanities [one of several systematic and interactive
lexical notebooks for use in a traditional classroom setting as well as in technology- enhanced courses, and distance learning]

Vol. 4. Resources in the Study of Academic Discourse in English [EFL] for Palestinian Universities: General Academic and Domain-Specific Lexis:
Literary History and Criticism

Vol. 5. Resources in the Study of Academic Discourse in English [EFL] for Palestinian Universities: General Academic and Domain-Specific Lexis:
Archaeology and Heritage Preservation/Management in Palestine

Vol. 6. Resources in the Study of English for Special Purposes in for Palestinian Universities: Cultural, Archaeological, and Political Tourism in
Palestine.

Vol. 7. Resources in Cultural Studies for Palestinian Universities: Conceptual History and the History of Concepts: Timelines in the Western
History of Ideas.

Vol. 8. Resources in the Study of Academic Discourse in English [EFL] for Palestinian Universities Political Science, Area Studies, and
International Studies

Vol. 9. Resources in Cultural Studies for Palestinian Universities: Critical Conceptual Analysis of Documentary Films, Verbal and Visual Mass
Culture, and Ancillary Materials in the Study of Contemporary Political Discourse

ADDITIONAL VOLUMES CURRENTLY IN PREPARATION

Vol. 10. Resources in Cultural Studies for Palestinian Universities: Approaches to Writing as a process and an Epistemic Practice
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Vol. 11. Resources in the Study of Academic Discourse in English [EFL] for Palestinian Universities: General Academic and Domain-Specific Lexis:
Literary Theory, History, and Criticism

Vol. 12. Resources in the Study of Academic Discourse in English [EFL] for Palestinian Universities: General Academic and Domain-Specific Lexis:
Theatre and the Performing Arts

Vol. 13. Resources in the Study of Academic Discourse in English [EFL] for Palestinian Universities: General Academic and Domain-Specific Lexis:
Introduction to Middle Eastern History

Vol. 14. Resources in the Study of Academic Discourse in English [EFL] for Palestinian Universities: General Academic and Domain-Specific Lexis:
Media and Communication Studies

Vol. 15 Resources in the Study of Academic Discourse in English [EFL] for Palestinian Universities: General Academic and Domain-Specific Lexis
Intellectual History

Resources in Cultural Studies for Palestinian Universities: Interdisciplinary Readings in English for Academic
Purposes: Political Science, Area Studies, and International Studies
G. R. Dominique
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A general Introduction To Critical Resistance And Cultural Studies

Critical Resistance and Cultural Studies, its supplements and ancillary volumes of templates, slides, and interactive guides to critical
reasoning, research methodologies, lexical competence and conceptual knowledge are intended to form the provisional epistemic
foundations for a nascent, interdisciplinary and international curriculum for Palestinian universities. They are meant to counter the
cognitive-epistemic effects of an antiquated and arguably colonialist program of study. As a faculty member in departments of English
Literature, I offer this material as a practical way of maintaining the general characteristics of the institutionally-mandated curriculum
for a population under military occupation and yet a potentially transformative means of resistance to both the Israeli Occupation and
the systemic assaults and corrosive effects of administrative policies on both sides that are designed, apparently, to inhibit or restrict
intellectual and academic freedom.

Among the more overt indicators of ideological coercion practiced in the Occupied Territories is Israeli Military Order 854, issued in
1980 and by means of which the State of Israel determines, in effect, what counts as “knowledge.” My response has been to develop
and advance a decolonializing approach to knowledge production, reproduction, and representation; to counter the cognitive-epistemic
effects of an antiquated and tacitly colonialist social sciences and humanities curriculum. Palestinian academics function under the
rigid constraints imposed by Israeli Occupation Forces-- by a regime whose legitimacy derives, in effect, from its ability to restrict
access to scholarship, to articulate, impose, and promote an historical narrative (or counter-narrative) which is consistent with the
interests of the Zionist state and which, over time and repetition, has come to be accepted as normative, particularly in the English-
speaking West. While it is true that the new technologies have allowed greater, digital access to scholarly work, the immediate,
unfettered and unmediated access to global information systems which is taken for granted in most universities is limited in the West
Bank and Gaza.

Such access, moreover, is essentially useless to those who lack the critical competencies, or analytical skills, necessary to judge the
veracity of socially constructed knowledge claims—particularly those are thought to provide the (spurious) historical justification
and humanitarian necessity of Zionist settler colonialism. In my experience, at least, over the past 10 year s I’ve spent teaching
English Language, literature, and Cultures, both in Palestine and in Israeli-occupied Jerusalem, Palestinian universities are surveilled,
managed, and ultimately “contained” by political forces, internal and external, whose interests are best served by allowing merely the
illusion of academic accomplishment and intellectual freedom.

COURSE CONTENT AND DELIVERY
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Each “master syllabus” and outline is continuously revised and updated and is provided to students together with an abridged version
containing only the specific assignments—those selected for each individual semester and the level of the students. Accordingly,
while the main digital library contains full text, students are also given a course package of readings that have already been edited for
length (and level-appropriate content). In this way, students can benefit from a broad view survey of important texts without becoming
over-burdened by an excessive amount of reading. The graduate versions of the courses are divided into theme-based units and each
student (or pair of students) is assigned one of them as a basis for a class presentation on the content listed. All students will read only
some portion of the material listed in the table of readings.

The program is thus prepared for contingencies such as an escalation of military operations and incursions, closures and strikes,
intermittent or sporadic live fire. Each individual course, furthermore, is structured in such a way that e-class and other distance-
learning protocols may be deployed to ensure continuity in course delivery—to the extent that continuity is possible in the Palestine
territories.

Finally, many of these courses can be modified for use in discipline-specific English Language courses and substituted for the generic,
general English Language requirement which uses “canned readings" with little or no critical, academic or discipline-specific content.
Courses such as these are of little value to Palestinian students who wish to do advanced coursework in a specific area of study—for
which they need substantive domain knowledge as well as the ability to read academic journals and perform documentary research
efficiently and effectively in English as well as in their native Arabic.

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN ACADEMIC OR DISCURSIVE PRACTICES
Ideological Representations in university curricula
Theories of Knowledge Production in Cultural Context
Knowledge, Power, and the Academic Establishment
The University and the Military- Industrial Academic Complex
Transgressing or Transforming Disciplinary Boundaries
Interdisciplinary and Cross-Disciplinary Research
Decolonizing Epistemologies and Pedagogical Praxis
Decolonizing Cognitive Strategies
Academic Reading Strategies and Purpose-Driven Reading
Subjugated, Situated, and Subjective Knowledge
Self- and Psychological Colonization
Disciplinary Structuring and Restructuring of Knowledge, New Knowledge Production, and Methods of Inquiry
The notion of academic or linguistic colonization

Introduction To The Foundational Concepts And Methodologies Of
Critical Theory and Interdisciplinary Practice
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PROPOSED PRELIMINARY ORIENTATIONS AND PRACTICAL WORKSHOPS ON THE FOLLOWING
Academic and Information Literacy
A Lexis-Based Approach to the Study of Language and Literature
Introduction to Academic discourse and Academic Discourse Socialization
Multiple Techniques of Analysis and Interpretation
Content Analysis
Lexical Competences
Critical Thinking/Analysis
Developing and Deploying Multiple Cognitive Models
Critical Theory [Using Critical Theory as an approach to higher-order forms of analysis, academic and critical literacies]
Critical Discourse Analysis
Content Analysis
Cognitive Structures and strategies
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Methods and Materials of Academic Inquiry, Specifically, Documentary/Qualitative Research Design
Electronic Databases

Academics In Abeyance: Critical Theory And Cultural
Studies Under Occupation

The courses described below are intended to serve as a basis of an international and interdisciplinary curriculum for advanced studies
in Palestinian universities. Most of them, however, can be adapted for use in an honors undergraduate track—particularly for English
majors and for those in the Faculty of Arts who intend to pursue graduate study abroad. Most of these courses and symposia, and
workshops can be modified for use in discipline-specific English Language courses and substituted for the general, or generic English
Language requirements which use “canned readings" with little or no critical, academic or discipline-specific content. Courses such as
these are of little value to Palestinian students who wish to do advanced coursework in a specific area of study—for which they need
substantive domain knowledge as well as the ability to read academic journals and perform documentary research efficiently and
effectively in English as well as in their native Arabic.

Each course has been designed to meet the specific needs of Palestinian students whose exposure to the norms, practices and standards
of the international academic community has been severly limited, largely due to the Israeli military occupation which has, historically
and by means of Military Orders, intended to contain, control and ultimately undermine higher education and critical agency in the
Occupied Territories. Students and faculty alike function under extraordinarily difficult circumstances—socio-cultural, linguistic,
economic, and political.. Our campuses and offices are subject to requent IDF incursions designed primarily to create and maintain
conditions “on the ground” which are designed to militate against intellectual development and the free exchange of ideas. Our
classrooms are subject to covert surveillance protocols and our faculty to various forms and degrees of treachery and intimidation.

A primary objective, however, is the advancement of a decolonializing academic discourse here in the Palestinian territories. The
courses in this series, Critical Theory and Cultural Studies, were designed originally to counter the cognitive-epistemic effects of an
arguably antiquated and tacitly colonialist curriculum. Palestinian universities struggle to operate under the rigid constraints imposed
by Israeli Occupation Forces-- by a regime whose legitimacy derives, in effect, from its ability to restrict access to scholarship, to
articulate, impose, and promote an historical narrative (or counternarrative) which is consistent with the interests of the Zionist state
and which, over time and repetition, has come to be accepted as normative. While it is true that the new technologies have allowed
greater, digital access to scholarly work, the immediate, unfettered and unmediated access to global information systems which is
taken for granted in most universitiesis is limited in the West Bank and Gaza.

Some of the courses provide a general introduction to the study of discourse, ideology, and power structures as defined and
articulated in various contexts—historical, social, and intellectual. Such concepts, contested or otherwise, are examined in
considerable detail across interdisciplinary knowledge domains.

MOST COURSES IN THIS GROUP, IN ADDITION TO COVERING THE SPECIALIZED CONTENT, ADDRESS ISSUES SUCH AS
THE FOLLOWING:
Academic Resistance
New Knowledge Formation
Epistemic Hegemony
Statism
Academic Autonomy
The politics of knowledge
Counterhegemonic Curriculum
Academic Capitalism
Internationalisation of Higher Education
Commercialization and Commodification of Academic Research
Decolonizing Methodologies
The University as an Ideological State Apparatus
Theories of Knowledge Production in Cultural Context
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Knowledge, Power, and the Academic Establishment
The University and the Military- Industrial Academic Complex
Transgressing or Transforming Disciplinary Boundaries
Interdisciplinary and Cross-Disciplinary Research
Decolonizing Epistemologies and Pedagogical Praxis
Decolonizing Cognitive Strategies
Subjugated, Situated, and Subjective Knowledge
Self- and Psychological Colonization
Disciplinary Structuring and Restructuring of Knowledge, New Knowledge Production, and Methods of Inquiry
Academic or Linguistic Colonization

The courses also address various types of knowledge and the socio-political (ideological), historical, and philosophical context in
which it is produced. As Ali Jabareen in “Palestinian Education in Mandatory Palestine” has pointed out, the curriculum of any
department can be manipulated by a dominant elite, political group or government to oppress and control the population at large.
Oppressive elites or despotic governments have often used education as a tool for social control. Such education has often been
misused and manipulated to serve only the narrow interests of those in power. Therefore, when one talks about a certain educational
system, one must make clear what kind of educational policy he or she is referring to, the content of that education, the curricula, the
intentions and policies of the decision makers, be it a dominant class, government, or state.” 1

Foundational Concepts And Methodologies Of Critical Theory And Interdisciplinary Practice

THIS SERIES OF COURSES MAY ENTAIL PRELIMINARY ORIENTATIONS AND WORKSHOPS ON THE FOLLOWING:
Academic and Information Literacy
A Lexis-Based Approach To The Study Of Language And Literature
Introduction To Academic discourse
Academic Discourse Socialization
Multiple Techniques of Analysis and Interpretation
Cognitive Strategies for University-Level Reading
Content Analysis
Academic Reading Strategies and Purpose-Driven Reading
Lexical Competences
Critical Thinking/Analysis
Developing and Deploying Multiple Cognitive Models
Critical Theory [Using Critical Theory as an Approach to Academic Reading]
Critical Discourse Analysis
Content Analysis
Developing and Deploying Multiple Cognitive Models
Linguistic Analysis as a Means of Understanding Cognitive Structures And Processes.
Developing and Deploying Multiple Cognitive Models
Methods and Materials of Academic Inquiry, Specifically, Documentary/Qualitative Research Design
Electronic Databases

AGGREGATED COMPETENCIES
English-based Academic, Information, and Critical Literacies
Writing as a Method of Inquiry
Language and Informal Logic
Lexis-Based Approach to Language
Applied Linguistics
Critical/Textual Analysis and Interpretation

1 http://www.qsm.ac.il/mrakez/asdarat/jamiea/7/AliJabareen-final.pdf
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Developing and Deploying Multiple Cognitive Models
Modes of Discourse
Logical Fallacies
Informal Fallacies
Cognitive and Memory Biases
Content Analysis
Critical Discourse Analysis
Critical Theory
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning, Inference

Interdisciplinary Readings In English For Academic Purposes: Levels 1-3: Political Science, Intelligence Analysis,
Critical Security And Terrorism Studies
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Any fact becomes important when it’s connected to another. The connection changes the perspective; it leads you to think that
every detail of the world, every voice, every word, written or spoken has more than its literal meaning, that it tells us of a Secret.
The rule is simple: Suspect, only suspect. You can read subtexts even in a traffic sign that says, “No littering.” I had a strict rule,
which I think the secret services follow too: No piece of information is superior to any other. Power lies in having them all on file
and then finding the connections. There are always connections; you have only to want to find them
. ---Umberto Eco, Foucault’s Pendulum

This course in academic reading and writing in English (English for Academic Purposes (EAP) is organized first thematically (with
an emphasis on theory) and then by genre and the rhetorical modes and models. It includes various types of academic writing
including, inter alia, abstracts, book chapters, proposals, theses, and articles based on empirical as well as qualitative research. The
readings packages also includes course outlines, syllabi, and program descriptions from universities in North America, Europe, and
the Middle East. Thus, students students can be expected to learn something of the institutional norms and practices and the manner in
which essential concepts are developed and defined. The general purpose of the series of courses outlined below is primarily reading
comprehension, both in the disciplines and across knowledge domains. The readings were selected on the basis of (1) their relevance
to the Palestinian situation, (2) the extent to which they can provide insight into the nature of interdisciplinary practices, (3) the degree
to which they represent current research in the disciplines involved, (4) to whatever extent possible, their contributions to modern
political discourse.
There are several, specialized versions of this series of courses, all of which may be developed into “content courses” in multiple
disciplinary frameworks. One involves an emphasis on Critical Discourse Analysis applied to source material generated by
stakeholders in the Israeli Occupation and the Palestinian resistance movements:

SPECIAL TOPICS IN CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
SAMPLE READINGS: ON-LINE AND ON PRINT RESERVE

NORMAN FAIRCLOUGH, Language and Power. New York: Longman, 2001. Introduction: critical language study; Discourse as social practice;
Discourse and power; Discourse, common sense and ideology

TEUN A. VAN DIJK, Ideology and Discourse: A Multidisciplinary Introduction
[http://www.discourses.org/OldBooks/Teun%20A%20van%20Dijk%20-%20Ideology%20and%20Discourse.pdf] Defining Ideology; Ideology as
Social Cognition;The Structure of Ideologies

ANNELIES MOORS, Discourse and Palestine: Power, Text and Context. Also, see review of Review by Samira Quraishy at
https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/media-review/book-review/1639-a-discourse-on-domination-in-mandate-palestine-imperialism-property-and-
insurgency.

ANAHEED AL-HARDAN, Decolonizing Research on Palestinians: Towards Critical Epistemologies and Research Practices. Qualitative Inquiry,
January 2014; vol. 20: pp. 61-71
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ANNELIES MOORS, Discourse and Palestine: Power, Text and Context. Also, see review of Review by Samira Quraishy at
[https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/media-review/book-review/1639-a-discourse-on-domination-in-mandate-palestine-imperialism-property-and-
insurgency.]

ANAHEED AL-HARDAN, Decolonizing Research on Palestinians: Towards Critical Epistemologies and Research Practices. Qualitative Inquiry,
January 2014; vol. 20: pp. 61-71

B. B. COSKUN, History Writing and Securitization of the Other: the Construction and Reconstruction of Palestinian and Israeli Security Discourses.
Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 23(2), 2010, 281-298.

SEAN F. MCMAHON, Ed. The Discourse of Palestinian-Israeli Relations: Persistent Analytics and Practices. Routledge, 2009.

SIMON ROY, Reflections on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict in us Public Discourse: Legitimizing Dissent. Journal of Palestine Studies, 39(2) 2010,
23-38.

HILLEL. COHEN, Society-Military Relations in a State-in-the-Making: Palestinian Security Agencies and the "Treason Discourse" in the Second
Intifada. Armed Forces & Society, 38(3), 2012, 463-485.

DAVID COUZENS HOY, Critical Resistance : From Poststructuralism to Post-Critique.

Another involves the emerging discipline of “cultural intelligence” and “cultural security,” as defined by Erik Nemeth. Given the
emerging threat of ISIL to the antiquities of the Levant and the Zionist colonization of Palestine’s material culture, its sacred and
secular past, I have included suggested readings for a proposed symposium, “Blood Antiquities: Cultural Heritage, Intelligence, and
Critical Security Studies”
BLOOD ANTIQUITIES: CULTURAL HERITAGE, INTELLIGENCE, AND
CRITICAL SECURITY STUDIES

SALAH H. AL-HOUDALIEH, Political crisis and Palestine's cultural heritage.
_____, Palestinian antiquities looters, their skill development, methodology and specialised terminology. Palestine Exploration Quarterly,
(2012)vol. 144, no. 2, p. 115-127
_____, Archaeological Heritage and Spiritual Protection: Looting and the Jinn in Palestine - Vol 25, No 1 (2012) Journal of Mediterranean
Archaeology
_____, Jinn in Palestine. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 25.1: 99-120.
_____, 2012: The Attitudes of Palestinian Religious Scholars and Institutions toward the Looting of Palestine's Archaeological Heritage. Present
Pasts journal 4 (1): 22-30.
_____, 2013 Toward a Code of Ethics for Archaeological Practice in the Occupied Palestinian National Territories. Liber Annuus 63: 395-413.
_____, 2013: Physical hazards encountered by antiquities looters: A case study from the Palestinian National Territories. Palestine Exploration
Quarterly 145 (4): 320-333.

A third alternative may emphasis the epistemic aspects of Intelligence, and Critical Security Studies. Exemplars , or models, include
the following:
SUGGESTED TOPICS LIST, APPLICABLE TO ALL LEVELS AND SECTIONS

Archaeology, Intelligence, and Cultural Security
Art and Cultural Security
Cultural Heritage, Intelligence, and Critical Security Studies: “Blood Art and Antiquities”
Conflict, Colonization, and Critical Thinking and Critical Discourse Analysis and Intelligence
Critial Terrorism Studies
Critical Resistance
Discursive Formations and Practices in Contemporary Conflict Studies
Illicit antiquities and Narcotics Trade
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Information, Information Systems and Cyber Warfare
Intellgence, Journalism, and Social Media
Intelligence and Critical Discourse Analysis
Intelligence as an Academic Discipline and the Professionalization of Intelligence Analysis
Interrogation and Torture in Theory, Policy, and Practice
Multi-disciplinary and Interdisciplinary approaches to Terrorism Studies
Open-Source (OSINT) Intelligence
Psychological and Sociological Approaches to Security Studies and Intelligence
Religion and Threat Perception
Security and the Media
Security, Environment, and Economics
Social Networks in Intelligence Gathering
Terrorism/ Counterterrorism
The History of State and Regional Security Practices and Intelligence in the Eastern Mediterranean
The Organizational Structure and Institutional Culture of Intelligence Agencies

SELECTED KEY WORDS [CONTROLLED, OR STANDARDIZED VOCABULARY] USED IN DATABASE SEARCHES2

Academia
Antithetical Writing
Biopolitics
Critical Security Studies
Cultural Intelligence
Cultural Security
Discursive Framing
Epistemic Authority
Epistemic Coloniality
Epistemic Communities
Epistemic Hierarchies
Epistemic Location
Epistemic Relevance
Epistemic Stance
Epistemic Violence
Ethnography
Globalization Of Education
Higher Education
Inter/Subjectivity
Intorcultural Negotiation
Knowledge-Claims
Legitimization Strategies
Literary Journalism
Management Of Knowledge
Oppositional Practices
Performativity
Political Tourism
Postcolonial Archaeology

2 These words and phrases represent a general consensus within and across disciplines [see “Searching Article Databases,” University of Illinois
Libraries for further information: available on line at [http://www.library.uiuc.edu/bix/pdf/genguide/searchtips.pdf] In bibliographical databases, a
brief list of keywords, selected by the author, generally appear just after the abstract, if abstracts are provided, or just after the “preferred citation.”
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Postcolonial Tourim
Resistance Theory
[Critical] Security Studies

I. CURRICULUM OVERVIEW
o Aggregated Competencies
 English-based Academic, Information, and Critical Literacies
 Language and Logic
 Lexis-Based Approach to Language
 Applied Linguistics
 Critical/Textual Analysis and Interpretation
 Developing and Deploying Multiple Cognitive Models
 Modes of Discourse
 Logical Fallacies
o Formal Fallacies/Non-Sequitur
o Informal Fallacies
 Cognitive and Memory Biases
 Content Analysis
 Critical Discourse Analysis
 Critical Theory
 Socio/Psycho and Forensic Linguistics
 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning, Inference
 Methods or Modes of Inquiry
o Text Typologies and Genre Analysis
 Periodicals (General Readership)
 Bibliographies
 Enumerative
 Annotated
 Abstracts and Chapter Summaries (Academic), Executive Summaries
 Print-based and Web-based Sources of Information
 Publications of Think Tanks and Policy Institutes
 Government Documents
 White Papers
 Published Agency Memoranda
 Transcripts of Congressional/Testimony, Proceedings and Debates
 Military Orders
 Executive Orders
 Agency Reports and Statements
 Research and Statistical Reports
 Scholarly (Journal) Articles
 Monographs
 NGO Publications
o Multi-Media Resources
 Audio-Video-Taped Lectures, Speeches, Interviews, Debates, Hearings
 Corporate Media/Independent Media
 Documentaries
† COURSE READINGS
o Abstracts only by Topics
 Conflict And Colonization