Political Science: a QuickStudy Laminated Reference Guide

6 Pages·2018·6.927 MB·English

by  Jeffrey Morton PhD, Orin Kirshner PhD

WORLD’S #1 ACADEMIC OUTLINE
A GUIDE TO U.S. & WORLD POLITICS
WORLD GOVERNMENTS
AFGHANISTAN CUBA HONG KONG JORDAN NEPAL PUERTO RICO THAILAND
Presidential Islamic Communist state Presidential limited Parliamentary Federal parliamentary (territory of the US) Constitutional monarchy
republic DENMARK democracy; a special constitutional monarchy republic Presidential democracy; TURKEY
ARGENTINA Parliamentary administrative region of KENYA NETHERLANDS territory of the US with Parliamentary republic
Presidential republic constitutional monarchy China (PRC) Presidential republic commonwealth status
Parliamentary UKRAINE
AUSTRALIA EGYPT HUNGARY KOREA, NORTH constitutional monarchy QATAR
Semi-presidential republic
Parliamentary democracy Presidential republic Parliamentary republic Communist state Absolute monarchy
NEW ZEALAND
and Commonwealth under ETHIOPIA ICELAND KOREA, SOUTH RUSSIA UNITED ARAB
a constitutional monarchy Parliamentary democracy EMIRATES
AUSTRIA Freepduebralilc parliamentary Par lIiNamDeInAtary republic Pre sKidUeWntiAalI Trepublic aan cdo nCsotimtumtioonnwale malothn aurncdheyr Sfeedmeria-ptiroensidential Federation of monarchies
Freepduebralilc parliamentary FINLAND Federal parliamentary Constitutional monarchy NIGERIA SAUDI ARABIA UNITED KINGDOM
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rep uCbAliMc BODIA Freepduebralilc parliamentary IRELAND tran LsUitiXonEaMl gBoOveUrnRmGent Fed PerAalK pIaSrTliAamNentary Pcoanrlsitaimtuetinotnaaryl monarchy Pre sUidReUntGiaUl rAepYublic
Parliamentary GREECE Parliamentary republic Constitutional monarchy republic SWEDEN VENEZUELA
constitutional monarchy Parliamentary republic ISRAEL MALAYSIA PANAMA Parliamentary Federal presidential
CANADA GREENLAND Parliamentary democracy Federal constitutional Presidential republic constitutional monarchy republic
FdCeeomdmeormcarlo anpcwayr elaianalmdth e unntadreyr a PpDaaerrntl imoafma trehknet aKriyn dgedmomoc oraf cy; Par lIiTaAmLeYntary republic mo nMarEcXhyICO Pre sPidEeRnUtial republic For mSWallIyT aZ EcoRnLfeAdNerDation Com VmIEuTnNistA sMtate
con CstHituILtiEonal monarchy (ter GritUorAy Mof the US) Par lJiAamMeAntIaCryA democracy Freepduebralilc presidential Pre sPidHeInLtiIaPl PreIpNuEbSlic ba ufte dsiemraill arre pinu bstlricucture to NA WEST BANK (territory)
President CiaHl rIeNpuAblic Pserlefs-igdoevnetrianli ndge mUoSc trearcryit;o ry aan cdo nCsotimtumtioonnwale malothn aurncdheyr Sem Mi-OprNesGidOenLtIiaAl republic POLAND Pre sSiYdeRnItAial republic YEMEN
Communist state HOLY SEE, Vatican City JAPAN MOROCCO Parliamentary republic (authoritarian) Controlled by the Houthis
COLOMBIA Ecclesiastical elective Parliamentary Parliamentary PORTUGAL TAIWAN ZIMBABWE
Presidential republic monarchy constitutional monarchy constitutional monarchy Semi-presidential republic Semi-presidential republic Semi-presidential republic
THEORIES OF WORLD POLITICS
Theory a. Zero-sum game: When the gains of c. The anarchic nature of the international Marx (1818–1883) and influential theorists
one actor result in equal losses for system can be reduced or eradicated such as John Hobson and Vladimir Lenin.
An intellectual tool that allows us to make
another. Realists believe that the zero- through the establishment of effective 1. Key assumptions:
sense of the complex world.
sum nature of world politics prevents international organizations and interna- a. Capitalism creates two classes of peo-
1. Based on a set of core assumptions, theory
cooperation among states. tional law. ple: Owners (bourgeoisie) and workers
paints a picture of the world, explaining
b. Security dilemma: When the attempt d. War is not inevitable. (proletariat).
how it is put together, what dangers exist,
by one state to increase its security 2. Important concepts: b. Owners exploit their workers in order
and what opportunities are present. by building up arms results in the a. Mutual benefit gains: When gains to realize profits.
a. Theory may explain international be- decreased security of another state. may be achieved simultaneously by c. The search for new markets, resources,
havior and/or make predictions about The other state then builds up arms to more than one actor. Idealists believe and profits leads to imperialism, the es-
the future. increase its security. that the mutual benefit nature of world tablishment of colonies outside the state.
b. Various theories compete to most accu- c. Arms races: The logical product of a politics promotes cooperation among d. Imperialism leads to war among capi-
rately explain world politics and guide security dilemma, when two or more states. talist states.
states in their international behavior. states build up their militaries in re- b. Interdependence: A situation whereby 2. Important concepts:
2. Paradigm: When one theory is adopted by sponse to one another. actions and events in one state, society, a. Class struggle: The inevitable clash of
most observers as the most powerful. 3. Policy prescription: or part of the world affect peoples interests between proletariat and bour-
Realism i. Increase military arms to deter attack. elsewhere. According to liberalism, geoisie classes.
A theory popularized by Greek historian ii. Form alliances with other states to interdependence promotes communica- b. Workers’ revolution: Revolt by the
Thucydides in the fifth century BC as a result promote a balance of power. tion and understanding, resulting in a proletariat against the bourgeoisie
of his analysis of the Peloponnesian War iii. Be suspicious of all states, includ- reduction of hostilities and war. aimed at ending capitalism and intro-
(431–404 BC). The theory has dominated ing allies, and put little faith in c. Democratic Peace: A theory that, ducing communism.
world politics for 2,500 years. international organizations and because democratic states do not fight c. Communism: An economic system
1. Key assumptions: international law to protect the state each other, the spread of democratic in which classes are abolished and the
a. Individuals are evil by nature. The self- from attack. governance throughout the world will state withers away. Under communism,
interest of individuals makes genuine Liberalism reduce the probability of war. each person works maximally accord-
cooperation problematic. A theory associated with French Enlighten- 3. Policy prescription: ing to their ability and receives the
b. States are guided by a national in- ment thinkers that challenges the core assump- a. Promote democratic institutions at fruits of collective labors in accordance
terest that dictates increased power. tions of realism. home and abroad. with needs.
c. The international system is anar- 1. Key assumptions: b. Establish and support international 3. Policy prescription:
chic, meaning there is no suprana- a. Individuals are good by nature. The organizations and international law. a. Struggle against capitalist states in
tional force capable of regulating fundamental concern for the welfare of c. Create links among people and states order to deter the expansion of capital-
the actions of states. others makes progress through coop- through international trade and coop- ist markets.
d. Peace is obtained when states form eration possible. eration. Reduce military arms to the b. Reject international organizations and
level of self-defense.
alliances of rough equals, establishing b. States with democratic institutions international law as tools controlled
a balance of power. preserve peace; states with non-demo- Marxism and used by capitalists to promote the
2. Important concepts: cratic institutions promote war. A theory associated with the writings of Karl interests of the bourgeoisie.
1
THREE LEVELS OF ANALYSIS
example, we may identify possible causes as Some international structures include:
characteristic of individuals, states, or the a. Unipolarity: The existence of an
international system. exceptionally powerful state, or he-
1. Individual: The focus is on the key deci- gemon, that is both able and willing
sion-makers of states. Characteristics of to manage the international system.
the individual, ranging from world view Examples of hegemons include:
to personality profile, are examined in i. Spain (1560–1609)
order to understand why a decision maker ii. France (1650–1713, 1792–
opted for a particular policy. 1815)
2. State: Characteristics associated with the iii. Great Britain (1815–1914)
state are analyzed to explain state behavior. iv. United States (1991–)
Key state-level attributes include the type b. Bipolarity: The existence of two
of government, level of economic develop- roughly equal, powerful states. The
British Empire (All Years)
ment, and geo-strategic location. cold war era (1945–1989) is exem-
British Possessions 3. International: The distribution of power plary of a bipolar system.
among states is examined to explain events, c. Multipolarity: When three or more
A way to organize thinking about and analysis tions. Levels of analysis help us to be system- such as world wars or imperialism. Various great powers are identifiable. Most
of world politics. Each level, or point of focus, atic in our approach to understanding world international structures can be identified, of modern history (1500–) has been
illuminates some aspect of international rela- politics. In examining a particular war, for depending on the distribution of power. categorized as multipolar.
MODERN INTERNATIONAL States responded with an airlift that kept the West iii. Ratification: The governmental branch empow-
Berlin population alive until Moscow allowed sup- ered to ratify treaties endorses it.
SYSTEM plies to reach the city. iv. Entry into force: When a specified number of
b. Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) states have ratified the treaty, it becomes binding
1. Holy Roman Empire (1500–1648): Era marked by the i. In response to intelligence reports that the Soviet international law.
rise of the modern territorial state within the boundaries Union was in the process of constructing nucle- 2. Ways to change or terminate a treaty:
of the Holy Roman Empire, replacing the decentralized ar-capable missile silos in Cuba, the Kennedy a. Expiration: The treaty’s stated duration expires.
city-states, fiefdoms, and princely states. This era is also administration quarantined the Caribbean island b. Amendment: A negotiated alteration of an existing
characterized by the influential role of the pope and to force the Soviets to back down. treaty.
ii. After much tension, Moscow announced that
Catholic Church. c. Impossibility of performance: When behavior
it would dismantle the silos and promise not to
2. Westphalian Era (1648–1815): Decentralized era fol- required by a treaty is no longer possible, the treaty
attempt again to place nuclear weapons in Cuba.
lowing the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) in which is no longer in force.
iii. The United States pledged not to invade Cuba
nation-states gained sovereign equality. This era marked 3. Custom: A consistent pattern of practice by states that
and agreed to remove U.S. missiles in Turkey in
the birth of international law and monopolized the le- is deemed to constitute an international law.
exchange.
gitimized use of force in the hands of governments. a. Once established, customary international law is
3. Congress of Vienna (1815–1914): Post-Napoleonic binding on all states in the international system,
Campaign era characterized by the Concert of Europe, including those that do not practice it.
which was designed to promote stability through great b. Elements of custom:
power negotiation of disputes. i. Material fact: The practice of states.
4. Inter-War Era (1919–1939) ii. Duration: The reiteration of the practice over
a. Period after World War I in which the interna- time.
tional community attempted to rebound from the iii. Opinio juris: Respect for the custom out of a sense
devastation of the war. of legal obligation.
b. Status quo states, such as France and England, c. Middle East Crisis (1973): Laws of War
attempted to preserve the international system along i. Following the Israeli rout of Soviet-supplied Rules that regulate both the recourse to war and military
the 1919 order. Egyptian and Syrian forces during the October conduct in time of war.
c. Revisionist states, such as Germany, Japan, and War, the Soviet Union announced its intention to 1. Jus ad bellum rules regulate the right of states to go to war.
Italy, sought opportunities to reorder the internation- unilaterally provide ‘peacekeepers’ to disengage 2. According to the United Nations Charter, states may only
al system in ways that would reflect their relative Israeli and Egyptian forces. go to war for three reasons:
power and status. ii. President Nixon placed U.S. strategic forces on a. Self-defense: The act of repelling an attack by an-
d. Less involved states, such as the Soviet Union and an intermediate defense condition (DEFCON), other state.
the United States, tacitly supported the status quo escalating the crisis to a nuclear level.
b. Collective self-defense: Assisting another state that
states but did not actively resist the revisionist states. iii. The Soviet Union backed down from the crisis.
has been attacked.
e. The League of Nations (LON) was established to 6. Post Cold War (1989–): Era characterized by American
c. Security Council authorization: Responding to a
promote international peace and security; disarma- hegemony, globalization, democratization, and ethnic
United Nations call to respond to an attack against a
ment was envisioned and international trade was conflict. By the 2010s, it was evident that the world was
UN member state.
promoted. in the process of transitioning from a unipolar system,
3. Jus in bello rules regulate the conduct of armies in time of
f. The entry of Germany into the League of Nations whereby one state dominates the system, to a multipolar
war. Key principles include:
(1926) and the drafting of the Kellogg-Briand Pact system. West European states, such as France and the
a. Proportionality: Using a level of military force in
(1928), which renounced the first use of force, were United Kingdom, Russia, and China are increasingly
proportion to what is necessary to achieve limited
high water marks of the era. important actors in global affairs.
objectives.
g. The Great Depression (1929), the rearmament
b. Unnecessary suffering: Using weapons of war and tac-
of Germany, and the rise of Adolf Hitler (1933)
eroded confidence in the ability of the world to INTERNATIONAL LAW tics that do not cause undue or unnecessary suffering.
c. Discrimination: Differentiating between military
avoid another catastrophic war. The era ended with
Germanyʼs invasion of Poland on September 1, The rules that regulate the relations of states with other states, and civilian targets.
1939. international organizations, and individuals are called inter- Human Rights Laws
5. Cold War (1945–1989): Period following World War II national law. Modern international law was born in 1648 when Rules that protect individual freedoms and liberties. Cor-
in which the United States and the Soviet Union engaged the decline of the Catholic Church in Europe required states nerstone human rights treaties include:
in a global struggle for security and supremacy. Emerg- to regulate themselves through the establishment of interna- 1. 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
ing from the ashes of the war as the only complete pow- tional laws. 2. 1948 Genocide Convention
ers, the superpowers consolidated power in their respec- Primary Sources of International Law 3. 1965 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
tive spheres of influence, engaged in a nuclear arms race, 1. Treaty: Explicit written agreement between states that of Racial Discrimination
constructed military alliances, and sought allies in Third regulates their behavior. Once established, treaty law is 4. 1966 UN Covenant for Civil and Political Rights
World regions. On three occasions, the two faced off in binding upon all states that have ratified the treaty. 5. 1966 UN Covenant for Social, Cultural, and Economic
a superpower crisis: a. Steps in the creation of a treaty: Rights
a. Berlin Crisis (1948): Attempting to force West i. Drafting: Representatives of states negotiate the 6. 1967 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Berlin to succumb, the Soviet Union imposed a land text of the treaty. Discrimination Against Women
blockade on food, energy, medicine, and supplies ii. Adoption: Representatives sign the treaty text, 7. 1984 Convention Against Torture
into the pro-Western half of the city. The United indicating approval. 8. 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child
2
INTERNATIONAL UNITED NATIONS ARMS CONTROL
POLITICAL ECONOMY 1. The United Nations (UN) was created in 1945 in the The negotiated regulation of military weapons.
aftermath of the Second World War to promote interna- Categories of Arms Control
The interaction between political and economic forces in tional peace, security, economic development, and social
1. Arms reduction: Agreement that results in an overall
world politics. justice.
decrease in the number of weapons.
Economic Theories a. Headquartered in
2. Arms freeze: Agreement to halt the production of weapons.
1. Capitalism: An economic system that empha- New York City, 3. Arms limitation: Agreement to limit the number or type
sizes money, market-oriented trade, and capital the UN is open to of weapon to a specific level.
investment for further production and profit. Key all nations and in Major Nuclear Arms Control Accords
elements: 2018 had a mem-
1. 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT)
a. Minimal government intervention in economic affairs bership of 193
2. 1970 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
b. Supply and demand determine production and prices states.
3. 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM)
c. Free movement of service, money, and people to b. The UN’s Char-
4. 1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT)
maximize profits ter created the
5. 1979 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II)
2. Mercantilism: An economic system that emphasizes the organization and
6. 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force Treaty (INF)
accumulation of wealth. Key elements: outlines its procedures and powers.
7. 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START)
a. Active government management of economic affairs 2. Principal organs of the United Nations: 8. 1993 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II)
b. Protectionism against foreign imports a. General Assembly (GA): Open to all United Na- 9. 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
c. Promotion of trade surpluses through aggressive tions members, the General Assembly passes resolu- 10. 1997 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START III)
exports tions that address any issue on its agenda. General 11. 2002 Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty
Economic Division of States Assembly resolutions, passed by a simple majority 12. 2005 International Convention for the Suppression of
1. First World: Wealthy states of Western Europe and of voting members, are non-binding, reflecting in- Acts of Nuclear Terrorism
North America. ternational opinion. 13. 2010 New Strategic Arms Treaty (New START)
a. Capitalist b. Security Council (SC): The United Nations organ 14. 2015 Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (Iran Nucle-
b. Industrialized responsible for the maintenance of international ar Deal)
c. Sophisticated economic systems peace and security. Security Council resolutions are
d. Citizenship with high per-capita incomes and long legally binding. For a resolution to pass in the Secu- ACTORS IN WORLD POLITICS
life expectancies rity Council, it must pass two tests:
2. Third World: States of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. i. Super-majority (9 of 15) vote 1. States are geographic entities governed by a central author-
a. Various non-capitalist economic systems ii. Concurring votes of the five permanent members ity, whose leaders claim to represent all persons within the
b. Non-industrialized 3. Membership is reserved to 15 states. territory. The emergence of states at the turn of the 16th
c. Exportation of raw materials a. Permanent members (P5): Five states (China, century ushered in the modern international system.
d. Impoverished citizenry France, Russia, United Kingdom, United States) a. Elements of a state:
i. Territory: Includes the surface area and beneath to
3. Economies in Transition: States of Eastern Europe always present on the Security Council that enjoy a
the core of the Earth, twelve miles of adjacent sea,
making the transition from controlled economies to veto power on all substantive resolutions.
and the airspace above the land and territorial sea.
market economies. b. Rotating members (R10): 10 states selected on a
ii. Population: Citizens of the state.
4. Asian NICs: Newly Industrialized Countries of East regional basis that serve for two-year terms.
iii. Government: Central controlling political institutions.
Asia. c. The Security Council is empowered to authorize
iv. Recognition: Formal declaration from other
International Economic Institutions peacekeeping operations (PKOs) in response to states that an entity is a state.
1. International Monetary Fund (IMF): Institution threats to international peace and security. Peace- b. Categories of states:
that provides short-term economic assistance to keeping operations are multinational forces that i. Hegemon: Dominant state that writes and en-
states experiencing economic troubles. States bor- operate under the United Nations flag. forces international rules.
rowing more than their allowed quota are required 4. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): Composed ii. Great power: State that defines its interests globally,
to adopt IMF conditions, which may include: of 54 UN members, ECOSOC considers issues relating to: wins most of the wars that it fights, and participates in
a. Selling of state-owned industries and assets a. Standards of living the major international diplomatic conferences.
b. Lower government expenditures on public services b. Economic and social development iii. Minor power: State with little international
c. Increased interest rates to prevent currency collapse c. Health-related problems influence that defines its interests narrowly.
d. Increased taxes d. International cultural and educational cooperation 2. International organizations (IOs) are multilateral in-
stitutions created by states in order to pursue common
2. International Bank of Reconstruction and Develop- e. Universal respect for human rights and fundamental
objectives that cannot be achieved unilaterally. Interna-
ment (World Bank): Institution that provides low-in- freedoms
tional organizations emerged as a major component of
terest long-term loans to developing countries for infra- 5. Trusteeship Council: UN organ responsible for the the international landscape during the twentieth century.
structure development. Typical World Bank projects transition of trust territories to independent states. The 3. Transnational non-governmental organizations
include: 11th, and final, trust territory of Palau was admitted as (NGOs): Institutions composed of private, non-state,
a. Roads a member of the United Nations in 1994, exhausting the international actors, such as individuals, that cut across
b. Bridges Trusteeship Council’s agenda. national boundaries.
c. Dams 6. International Court of Justice (ICJ): 4. Terrorist organizations: Groups that employ the unlaw-
d. Sea ports a. Located in The Hague, Netherlands, the ICJ is the ful use of violence and force against individuals, infra-
e. Communications systems principal judicial organ of the United Nations. structure, and nation-states for political purposes.
3. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT): b. The ICJ’s 15 judges rule on cases brought before it a. al Qaeda: Group established by Osama bin Laden
Series of multilateral agreements designed to coordinate by states. The ICJ also renders advisory opinions to in the 1990s, claiming to wage a defensive war
the reduction of tariffs on imports. GATT rounds include: the General Assembly and Security Council when (jihad) against Western powers to force them out of
a. Geneva, Switzerland (1947–1948): 23 participating requested. the Muslim world. Responsible for numerous high-
states 7. Secretariat: The administrative staff that serves the level attacks, ranging from the bombing of the USS
b. Annecy, France (1948–1949): 33 participating states United Nations and its member-states. Cole in 2000 to the 2001 World Trade Center attack
on New York City and Washington, DC.
c. Torquay, England (1950–1951): 34 participating a. The highest office in the Secretariat is held by the
b. Islamic State: Terrorist organization that claims to
states secretary-general, who is elected for five-year
fight an offensive war (jihad) in order to establish
d. Geneva, Switzerland (1955–1956): 22 participating renewable terms by the General Assembly and Se-
a Caliphate throughout the Muslim world. The
states curity Council.
Islamic State was centered in Iraq and Syria before
e. Dillon Round (1960–1962): 45 participating states b. Secretary-general: spreading to many Muslim countries.
f. Kennedy Round (1964–1967): 48 participating i. Trygve Lie, Norway, 1946–1953 c. Hezbollah: A Syrian and Iranian supported terrorist
states ii. Dag Hammarskjold, Sweden, 1953–1961 group that seeks the destruction of Israel. Hezbol-
g. Tokyo Round (1973–1979): 99 participating iii. U Thant, Burma, 1961–1971 lah and Israel fought a war in 2006 that resulted in
states iv. Kurt Waldheim, Austria, 1971–1981 a standoff.
h. Uruguay Round (1986–1994): 125 participating v. Javier Perez de Cuellar, Peru, 1981–1991 d. Hamas: A Palestinian terrorist organization based
states vi. Boutros-Boutros Ghali, Egypt, 1992–1996 in the Gaza Strip that struggles politically against
4. World Trade Organization (WTO): Institution created vii. Kofi Annan, Ghana, 1997–2006 the mainstream Palestinian Fatah movement and
in 1995 to replace the GATT. The WTO is empowered viii. Ban Ki-moon, Korea, 2007–2016 militarily with the state of Israel. Hamas and Israel
to both adjust international trade rules and settle conflicts ix. António Guterres, Portugal, 2017– have fought several wars, each resulting in signifi-
arising over their interpretation. cant human and infrastructure damage.
3
WAR 6. Are there causal relations among social phenomena? c. We can better understand the emergence of capi-
7. Do social facts require reduction to facts about indi- talism by seeing how it corresponds to structures
A conflict carried on by force of arms, as between states viduals? of Calvinism.
or between parties within a state. 8. What is the role of theory in social explanation? 4. Interpretive sociologists extract meaningfulness
1. International war: A war involving two or more Methods of Study from social phenomena.
states. 1. Descriptive 5. Social phenomena do not admit of causal explanation.
2. Civil war: War taking place between parties within a. Explanations, methods, empirical arguments, theo- 6. Social phenomena derive from purposive actions of
a state. ries, and hypotheses in social science literature. individuals.
3. Political scientists have established a minimum b. Philosopher needs extensive knowledge of areas Causal Explanation
battle death threshold of 1,000 to differentiate war of social science research. Necessary to distinguish between the causal relation
from conflict short of war. c. Philosopher formulates analysis of the social between two events and the causal determination
Immediate & Underlying Causes sciences. through strict laws of nature.
d. Philosopher’s analysis corresponds to scientists’ 1. Social phenomena rarely derive from strict laws of
1. An immediate cause is an event that occurs just
practice. nature:
prior to the onset of a war that is considered the point
2. Prescriptive
of no return. EX: Wars do not result from antecedent political
a. Field is epistemic.
2. Underlying causes are long-term trends that take tensions in the way that earthquakes result from
b. Concerned with scientific theories/hypotheses
place years or decades prior to the onset of the war. antecedent conditions in plate tectonics.
put forward as true or probable.
Categories of War c. Theories are justified on rational grounds. 2. Non-deterministic causal relations derive from
1. Systemic war: Involves most, if not all, great powers d. Philosopher provides critical evaluation of exist- choices of individual persons.
in a prolonged and particularly destructive conflict ing social science methods and practices. 3. Social phenomena admit of causal explanation.
over the structure of the international system. e. Philosopher determines if methods are true or 4. Much social explanation depends on asserting caus-
a. Systemic wars determine global leadership. false. al relations between social events and processes:
b. Other terms used include structural war, hege- 3. Descriptive and prescriptive methods: EX: Claim that the administrative competence of
monic war, and world war. a. Suggest that the philosophy of social science be the state is a crucial causal factor in determining the
c. Since 1500, there have been six systemic wars: construed as a rational reconstruction of existing success or failure of a revolutionary movement.
social science practice.
i. Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) 5. A causal explanation discovers conditions existing
b. Suggest that reconstruction is guided by existing
ii. War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1713) prior to the event:
practice.
ii. Wars of the French Revolution (1792–1802) a. Given the law-governed regularities.
c. Suggest that reconstruction extend beyond exist-
iv. Napoleonic Campaigns (1803–1815) b. Sufficient to produce this event.
ing practice.
v. World War I (1914–1918) d. Identify faulty assumptions, forms of reasoning, EX: To say that C is a cause of E is to assert that the
vi. World War II (1939–1945) and explanatory frameworks. occurrence of C, in the context of a field of social
2. Great power war: Involves at least one great pow- processes and mechanisms F, brought about E (or
Positions in Social Science
er on each side of the conflict. Since 1500, there have increased the likelihood of the occurrence of E).
been sixty-four great power wars. The most recent 1. Naturalism: Methods of the social sciences should
6. Causal mechanism: A series of events or actions
was the Korean War (1950–1953) between the Unit- correspond closely to natural sciences.
leading from cause to effect.
ed States and China. 2. Physicalism: All higher-level phenomena and regu-
3. Interstate war: Conflict with one or more great larities are reducible to: EX: The extension of a trolley line from central city to
a. Physical entities. periphery causes the deterioration of public schools in
powers fighting on one side against non-great pow-
b. Laws that govern them. the central city. To make such a claim, it is necessary
ers on the other. More than 120 interstate wars have
3. Anti-naturalism: Social sciences are inherently to provide an account of social and political mechanisms
been fought since 1500.
distinct from the natural sciences: that join the antecedent condition to the consequent.
4. Minor power war: Conflict between two or more
states, none of which is a great power. a. Social phenomena are metaphysically distin- Materialist Explanation
guishable from natural phenomena.
5. Civil war: Internal struggle between parties from There is an important variety of causal explanation in
b. Social phenomena are intentional.
the same state. A civil war may be fought to determine social science.
i. Social phenomena depend on the meaningful
the leadership of the state or to secure the indepen- 1. Attempts to explain a social feature in terms of fea-
actions of individuals.
dence of part of the state from the central government. tures of the material environment.
ii. Natural phenomena admit of causal explanation.
Levels of War iii. Social phenomena require intentional expla- 2. Explains in context which social phenomenon occurs.
1. Nuclear war: Involves the use of atomic, nuclear, nation. 3. Features of environment include topography and
or thermonuclear weapons. The Pacific Theater of iv. There is a corresponding difference between climate:
World War II became a nuclear war when the United the methods of natural and social science. EX: Banditry thrives in remote regions because
States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Verstehen Method rugged terrain makes it difficult for state to repress
Nagasaki in August 1945. A method of intuitive interpretation of human action bandits.
2. Total war: Conflict that affects and involves all seg- radically distinct from methods of inquiry in natural 4. Refers to the material needs of society (i.e., the need
ments of society, rather than solely the militaries of sciences. to produce goods to support the population).
the participating states. World War I is widely viewed Interpretive Sociology 5. Karl Marx: Development of technology drives the
as history’s first total war, with civilian casualties School within the philosophy of social science that says development of property relations and political systems.
outnumbering battle deaths. human action is meaningless. 6. Refers to fact of human agency in order to carry out
3. High-intensity conflict (HIC): General war that 1. Goal of social inquiry is to provide interpretations explanation—human beings are capable of making
involves major weapons systems and substantial of human conduct within the context of culturally deliberative choices on the basis of wants and beliefs.
amounts of armed soldiers. specific arrangements. 7. Accept that social phenomena depend on the purpo-
4. Low-intensity conflict (LIC): Unconventional war 2. Analogy between literary texts and social phenom- sive actions of individuals.
fought in the Third World that is smaller in terms of ena:
military scale. a. Both are complex systems of meaningful ele- MAJOR U.S. FOREIGN
ments.
b. Goal of the interpreter is to provide an interpre- POLICY EVENTS:
PHILOSOPHY OF THE
tation of the elements.
SOCIAL SCIENCES c. In this respect, social science involves a herme- 2000–2018
neutic inquiry.
Study of logic and methods of the social sciences which d. Interpreter should tease out the meanings under- 1. 2001 al Qaeda Terror Attack: A series of four co-
aims to provide an interpretation of the social sciences. lying a particular complex of social behavior. ordinated terror attacks involving nineteen terrorists,
e. Interpreter is like a literary critic composing a whereby commercial airplanes were hijacked and
Central Questions Of Study
complex literary text. flown into buildings in the United States. Two planes
1. What are the criteria of a good social explanation? 3. Max Weber: Relation between capitalism and the hit the Twin Towers in New York City, causing both
2. How are the social sciences distinct from natural Protestant ethic. buildings to collapse. One plane was flown into the
sciences? a. Identifies elements of Western European culture U.S. Pentagon in Washington, DC and the fourth
3. Is there a distinctive method for social research? that shaped human action in this environment to crashed into a field in Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000
4. What are the procedures needed to evaluate asser- produce capitalism. people died in the one-day attack.
tions? b. Calvinism and capitalism are historically spe- 2. 2001 Invasion of Afghanistan: In response to the
5. Are there irreducible social laws? cific complexes of values and meanings. 911 attacks, the United States invaded Afghanistan,
4
Major U.S. Foreign Policy Events: 2000–2018 (continued)
the country that provided safe haven for Osama bin 1781, the Articles of Confederation are considered vote in both the House of Representatives
Laden and his al Qaeda terrorist organization. The America’s first constitution. Yet the Continental Con- and Senate. And Congress can remove
ruling Taliban government was toppled and replaced gress created by the Articles was weak. It had almost the president from office by impeachment
with a pro-Western president. The United States and no power in relation to the several States. This made (by a majority vote in the House and two-
its allies began a long and costly process of nation- it difficult to undertake even the most basic of govern- thirds vote in the Senate). Article I gives
building in Afghanistan that remains unfinished. ment functions—most importantly, collect taxes, Congress the power to check the Supreme
3. 2003 Invasion of Iraq: U.S. President George W. raise an army, conduct foreign policy, and regulate Court in four ways: The Senate confirms
Bush, citing links between Iraqi President Saddam domestic and foreign commerce. But the Philadel- the president’s nominations for Supreme
Hussein and the 911 terror attacks, authorized an phia convention went far beyond its original man- Court justices. The Supreme Court is
invasion of the Persian Gulf nation. Despite the quick date. Convened from May 14 to September 17, 1787, dependent on Congress for funding. Con-
toppling of Iraq’s government, the United States the fifty-five delegates to the convention scuttled gress can impeach Supreme Court justices
struggled to maintain peace and security in the coun- the Articles and drafted a second U.S. constitu- and remove them from office. Congress
try. A violent sectarian war broke out, causing further tion—the Constitution of the United States of can override Supreme Court decisions by
pain and delay in the nation-building effort. Iraq
America. amending the Constitution.
remains deeply fractured among its three main ethnic
2. The Constitution of the United States of America b) Article II gives the president the power
groups—Sunnis, Shia, and Kurds.
created a federal republic where the power to gov- to check Congress by means of a veto
4. 2011 Invasion of Libya: At the request of the Arab
ern is based upon the consent of the governed and on congressional legislation. Article II
League, the United Nations Security Council autho-
governmental power is divided among three branch- gives the president the power to check the
rized the establishment by the North Atlantic Treaty
es (Congress, president, and Supreme Court) as Supreme Court by nominating Supreme
Organization (NATO) of a no-fly zone over Libya in
well as between the national government and state Court justices.
response to Muamar Qaddafi’s brutal crackdown of
governments (federalism). c) Article III gives the Supreme Court the
protesters. The United States and its allies sided with
a. The Constitution is divided into seven (7) parts power to check Congress and the presi-
anti-government rebels and began a sustained bomb-
ing campaign of Libya, eventually forcing Qaddafi (known as Articles); and twenty-seven (27) dent by ruling on the constitutionality of
from power. The Libyan leader was killed by the amendments. Congress, the president, and the Congressional legislation and presidential
rebels upon capture. In the aftermath, Libya de- Supreme Court are established by Articles I, II, actions (a power asserted in the Supreme
scended into chaos with multiple groups claiming to and III, respectively. Court case of Marbury v. Madison
be the government of the deeply fractured country. b. Articles I, II, and III lay out the governmental [1803]).
President Barack Obama, who authorized the inva- powers of each branch and create a system of c. In addition to the separation of powers and
sion, later regretted the decision as his gravest foreign separation of powers and checks and balances. checks and balances systems, the Constitution
policy mistake. i. The separation of powers system divides the divides power between the national government
5. 2011 Killing of Osama bin-Laden: Following the power to make law, enforce law, and interpret and state governments. This is called federal-
U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, al Qaeda’s law among the three branches of government. ism. The federal structure of the United States
leader sought refuge in neighboring Pakistan. After Article I gives Congress the power to make is established in the tenth amendment to the
a decade-long search, U.S. intelligence agents lo- law; Article II gives the president power to Constitution, which asserts that, “The pow-
enforce law; and Article III gives the Supreme ers not delegated to the United States by the
cated bin Laden in a compound in Abbottabad. U.S.
Court the power to interpret law. Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States,
President Barack Obama authorized an aerial inter-
vention that resulted in the death of the al Qaeda a) The powers delegated to Congress are are reserved to the States respectively, or to the
leader. enumerated in Article I, Section 8 of the people.” Powers that are shared by the national
6. 2013 Airstrikes in Syria: The Syrian Civil War Constitution. They include the power to government and state governments (concurrent
began in 2011 as a continuation of the Arab Spring tax; the power to regulate commerce with powers) include the power to tax, borrow mon-
movement that had destabilized numerous Arab gov- foreign nations; the power to coin money; ey, and regulate elections. Powers that are exclu-
sively vested in the United States government
ernments. Multiple rebel forces squared off against the power to declare war; and the power to
are those enumerated in Article I, Section 8 of
Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, with the situation raise and equip a military.
the Constitution, as well as those enumerated
becoming more complex with the rise of the Islamic b) The powers delegated to the president are
in Article II, Sections 2 and 3. Article III of the
State in portions of the country. The United States, enumerated in Article II, Sections 2 and
Constitution gives the Supreme Court the power
siding against Assad and the Islamic State, initiated 3. They include being the commander
to rule on the laws and actions of the states.
a series of aerial bombings in an effort to support the and chief of the military; negotiating and
anti-government, non-Islamic State rebels. With the concluding treaties (with the advice and
support of Russia, Assad remained in power. consent of two-thirds of the Senate); and THE THREE BRANCHES
7. 2015 Nuclear Arms Deal with Iran: Iran’s progress appointing ambassadors, other public of-
OF THE FEDERAL
toward the development of a nuclear arsenal caused ficials, and members of the Supreme Court
great concern internationally. After sanctions failed (with the advice and consent of two-thirds GOVERNMENT
to deter Iran’s program, six major powers (United
of the Senate).
States, Russia, China, Germany, France, and the
c) The powers delegated to the Supreme
United Kingdom) entered into negotiations with Iran Congress (Legislative Branch)
Court are enumerated in Article III, Sec-
to resolve the issue. The agreement mandated a reduc- Congress is divided into two chambers: the House of
tion 2. They include the power to interpret
tion of Iranian nuclear capability and the verification Representatives and the Senate.
law in all cases arising under the Con-
of inspections by the International Atomic Energy The House of Representatives
stitution and treaties; cases to which the
Agency (IAEA) in exchange for a reduction of in-
ternational sanctions applied against Iran. United States is a party; among citizens of 1. There are 435 members of the House. Members of
8. 2016 Election of Donald J. Trump: Representing different states; in cases in which a state the House serve two-year terms and are elected from
perhaps the most significant change in the foreign shall be a party; and cases affecting am- Congressional districts apportioned by the population
policy orientation of the United States since World bassadors and other public ministers. in each state. Every 10 years, after the Census is
War II, the election of Donald Trump as the 45th ii. The system of checks and balances gives conducted, all states are required to reapportion their
president in 2016 reflected a growing American dis- each branch of government the power to districts according to the revised state populations.
comfort with the global leadership position that it had limit or consent to the activities of the oth- Originally, the House had no fixed number of repre-
assumed in 1945. Candidate Trump called for a re- ers. The purpose of the system of checks sentatives. In 1911, however, the number of repre-
consideration of international trade deals, a reduction and balances is to ensure that no branch of sentatives was fixed at 435 by Congress. As of the
of U.S. interventions abroad, and the need for allies government may encroach on the powers of Census of 2010, each House district contained ap-
to contribute to their own security. another. proximately 711,000 people.
iii. The system of checks and balances ensures 2. The internal organization of the House of Represen-
WHAT KIND OF COUNTRY that the powers delegated to each branch of tatives consists of a leadership structure and a com-
government by the Constitution are protected mittee system.
IS THE UNITED STATES? from the encroachment of the other branches. a. The leadership structure consists of a Speaker of
a) Article I gives Congress the power to the House, a majority leader, a majority whip, a
1. On February 21, 1787, the Continental Congress check the president in five ways. The minority leader, and a minority whip.
resolved that a convention “be held in Philadelphia president is dependent on Congress for i. The position of Speaker of the House is the
for the sole and expressed purpose of revising the funding. The Senate has the power to re- only leadership position explicitly stated in
Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union.” ject presidential nominations and treaties the Constitution. The Speaker is elected by
Drafted by the first Continental Congress on Novem- by a two-thirds vote. Congress can over- the majority party; presides over the House;
ber 15, 1777, and entering into force on March 1, ride presidential vetoes by a two-thirds is the principal leader of the majority party;
5
The Three Branches of the Federal Government (continued)
and is third in line of succession to the presi- The President (the Executive Branch) b. The 13 federal appellate courts are appellate in
dency (after the vice president). jurisdiction. This means that they only hear cases
ii. The majority leader is elected by the majority Election that are on appeal from lower courts. These lower
party. The majority leader works closely with 1. The president is elected every four years. The original courts are the 94 district courts; the United States
the Speaker on scheduling votes and helping to Constitution placed no limits on the number of terms a Court of Claims, and the Court of International
formulate policy. president could serve. However, the XXII Amendment Trade; and the 50 state supreme courts. Cases that
iii. The majority whip is elected by the majority (passed in 1947) limited the president to two terms. are appealed from a state supreme court to a federal
party and is responsible for party discipline, 2. The president is not directly elected by the people. Instead, appellate court must involve some aspect of
especially keeping members in line on votes. presidents are elected by an Electoral College. The Elec- federal law.
iv. The minority leader and minority whip per- toral College was the result of a compromise at the Con- c. Regardless of where cases originate, the Su-
form the same functions listed previously but for stitutional Convention between delegates who wanted the preme Court has the final word on the law.
2. All federal court judges are nominated by the president
the minority party. president to be elected by Congress and those who want-
and confirmed by the Senate. They serve for life (or
3. Because the House is so large, before being brought to ed the president to be elected directly by the people.
until removed by impeachment).
the full House for a vote, most of the work on legislation 3. Every four years voters go the polls to select a president.
3. Within the Supreme Court, a chief justice is appointed
is done in specialized committees organized into func- However, they do not vote for the presidential candidates
by the president to oversee the administration of the court
tional issue areas. As of 2017, there were 21 committees directly, in a popular vote. Instead, they vote to elect
and its deliberations.
in the House: Agriculture; Appropriations; Armed Ser- people, known as “electors,” to the Electoral College.
4. All cases brought before the Supreme Court or one of
vices; Budget; Education and the Workforce; Energy and The Electoral College is made up of 538 electors who
the thirteen federal appeals courts are decided by
Commerce; Ethics; Financial Services; Foreign Affairs; cast their votes for president. The number of electors majority vote.
Homeland Security; House Administration; Intelligence; each state has is equal to the number of its senators plus 5. In no cases are the Supreme Court and federal appeals
Judiciary; Natural Resources; Oversight and Government the number of its representatives. The presidential can- court required to hear cases on appeal. U.S. citizens have
Reform; Rules; Science, Space, and Technology; Small didate who receives a majority of electors (270) wins the a right to be heard in a court of original jurisdiction and
Business; Transportation and Infrastructure; Veterans’ presidency. Because of how it is organized, it is possible to appeal their case if they do not like the ruling.
Affairs; and Ways and Means. The most powerful of for a presidential candidate to win the popular vote but
these committees are Rules; Ways and Means; and Ap- lose the electoral vote. This has occurred in five presi-
propriations. dential elections, including the election of President HOW A BILL BECOMES A LAW
a. The Rules Committee plays a key role in shaping Donald J. Trump in 2016 and George W. Bush in 2000.
the legislative process in the House. It does so by Organization of the Executive Branch About 25,000 bills are introduced in each term of Congress,
setting rules that limit and organize debate on leg- but only 10% become law. The normal process for a bill to
islation on the floor of the House. The Rules Com- 1. The executive branch is organized into four main parts: become a law is as follows:
mittee is closely linked to the Speaker and majority the White House Office (WHO); the Executive Office 1. A bill is drafted by members of Congress, the president,
party leader and serves their interests in forwarding of the President (EOP); the White House Cabinet; and or outside groups.
a legislative agenda. administrative agencies. 2. The bill is introduced in the House by a Representative.
b. The Ways and Means Committee oversees all 2. The White House Office is staffed by people directly 3. The Speaker of the House sends the bill to an appropri-
federal taxation and revenue measures; Social Secu- hired by the president. They do not need to be confirmed ate committee.
rity, Medicare, welfare, and federal unemployment by the Senate. Among the major positions in the WHO 4. The committee may kill the bill, amend the bill, or leave
programs; and international trade regulations. are Office of the Chief of Staff; Office of White House the bill in its original form. For a bill to get out of the
c. The Appropriations Committee decides whether Counsel; Office of Communications; Office of National committee, a majority of the committee’s members must
bills that require federal funding will be funded. Security Advisor; Domestic Policy Council; and Office vote in favor of its discharge.
The Senate of Political Affairs. 5. The committee bill is sent to the Rules Commit-
1. The Senate is composed of 100 members, two from each 3. The Executive Office of the President is staffed by tee, which decides the rules for debate and when
state regardless of population. Each senator serves a term people nominated by the president but confirmed by the the bill will come up for debate. (There is no
of six years. Senate elections are staggered so that every Senate. Some of the agencies in the EOP are the Na- equivalent to the Rules Committee in the Senate.)
two years one-third of senators stand for election. Orig- tional Security Agency; the Council of Economic Advi- 6. Once the bill is discharged by the Rules Committee,
inally, senators were elected by state legislatures. This sors; the Office of Management and Budget; the Office the full House debates the bill according to the rules
changed in 1913 with the Seventeenth Amendment that of National Drug Control Policy; and the Office of promulgated by the Committee. These rules may allow
provided for the direct election of senators by the voters United States Trade Representative. amendments to be made to the bill on the floor.
of a state. 4. The White House Cabinet is composed of the heads of 7. If a majority votes in favor of the bill, it goes to the
2. Like the House, the internal organization of the Senate the major executive branch departments: Agriculture, Senate.
consists of a leadership structure and a committee system. Commerce, Defense, Education, Energy, Health and 8. In the Senate, the bill is introduced by a senator.
a. The leadership structure consists of a majority lead- Human Resources, Homeland Security, Interior, Justice, 9. The Senate majority leader sends the bill to an appropri-
er, a majority whip, a minority leader, and a minor- Labor, State, Treasury, and Veterans Affairs. ate committee.
ity whip, which function in much the same way as 5. The executive branch includes more than sixty admin- 10. The committee process in the Senate is the same as for
their House counter parts. the House. If a majority of committee members vote
istrative agencies, including the Central Intelligence
b. In addition to these positions, the Constitution for the bill, its goes to the whole Senate.
Agency, the Environment Protection Agency, the Fed-
makes the vice president of the United States the 11. The majority leader decides when the whole Senate
eral Communications Commission, the Federal Elections
official president of the Senate. Although largely will consider the bill.
Commission, the Small Business Agency, and the Na-
a ceremonial role, in the case of a tie vote, the vice 12. The bill is debated, and if necessary, amendments are
tional Transportation and Safety Board.
president casts the deciding vote. made. If a majority in the Senate votes in favor of the
3. As of 2017, there were 20 committees in the Senate. The Supreme Court & Federal Court System (the bill, it is returned to the House.
Many of these committees have different names than Judicial Branch) 13. If the House rejects any of the changes made by the
those in the House; however, they are organized largely 1. Article III of the Constitution creates a Supreme Court. Senate, it goes to a Conference Committee of members
according to the same functional issues. However, the number of Supreme Court seats, as well from both Houses. The purpose of the Conference
EX: The Senate counterpart to the House Ways and as the organization of the federal judicial system, is Committee is to work out a bill that a majority in both
Means Committee is the Senate Finance Committee. determined by Congress. Since the enactment of the Houses can agree to.
4. Unlike the House, there is no Rules Committee in the Federal Circuit Act of 1982, the Supreme Court has had 14. Once the Conference Committee finishes its work, the
Senate, which reflects that body’s small number and 9 justices and the federal court system has consisted of newly amended bill is sent back to the House and the
typically more genial relationships between members of 13 Federal Appellate Courts, 94 Federal District Courts, Senate for a final vote.
the two different parties. Also, unlike the House, the and many specialized courts, such as the Court of Mili- 15. If the bill receives majority support in both the House
Senate maintains a filibuster rule. This rule allows a tary Appeals, the Court of Claims, and the Court of In- and the Senate, it is sent to the president. The president
single senator wishing to block a vote on legislation to ternational Trade. may sign (approve) the bill or veto (reject) it.
hold the floor indefinitely, bringing all other work of the a. The 94 district courts act as courts of original juris- 16. If the president vetoes the bill, it can still become
Senate to a halt. A three-fifths vote by the entire Senate diction. This means that these courts must hear all law if two-thirds of the members of both Houses
is required to end a filibuster (a cloture vote). cases that are federal in nature. vote to override the veto.
U.S. $6.95 Authors: Jeffrey Morton, PhD, Orin Kirshner, PhD
NOTE TO STUDENT: This guide is intended for informational purposes only. Due to its
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