Political Conspiracies in America: A Reader PDF
Preview Political Conspiracies in America: A Reader
POLITICAL CONSPIRACIES IN(cid:1)AMERICA POLITICAL CONSPIRACIES IN AMERICA (cid:1) A Reader Editedby DonaldT.Critchlow,JohnKorasick, andMatthewC.Sherman IndianaIniversityPress BLOOMINGTON | INDIANAPOLIS Thisbookisapublicationof IndianaUniversityPress 601NorthMortonStreet Bloomington,Indiana47404-3797USA http://iupress.indiana.edu Telephoneorders 800-842-6796 Faxorders 812-855-7931 Ordersbyemail [email protected] ©2008byIndianaUniversityPress Allrightsreserved Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedorutilizedinany formorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,including photocopyingandrecording,orbyanyinformationstorage andretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthe publisher.TheAssociationofAmericanUniversityPresses’ ResolutiononPermissionsconstitutestheonlyexception tothisprohibition. Thepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimum requirementsofAmericanNationalStandardforInformation Sciences—PermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibrary Materials,ANSIZ39.48-1984. ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData PoliticalconspiraciesinAmerica:areader/editedbyDonaldT. Critchlow,JohnKorasick,andMatthewC.Sherman. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN-13:978-0-253-35079-4(cloth:alk.paper) ISBN-13:978-0-253-21964-0(paper:alk.paper) 1. Conspiracies —UnitedStates—History—Sources.2. UnitedStates—Politicsand government—Sources. I.Critchlow,DonaldT.,date II. Korasick, John.III.Sherman,MatthewC. E183.P652008 364.1’300973—dc22 2007038024 1 2 3 4 5 13 12 11 10 09 08 C ONTENTS Introduction vii Section1.ConspiracyinaNewNation 1 Section2.ConspiracyinanAgeofDemocracy 25 Section3.ConspiracyinaDividedNation 49 Section4.ConspiracyintheIndustrialAge throughtheNewDeal 67 Section5.ConspiracyintheColdWarEra 101 Section6.ConspiracyinContemporaryAmerica 143 ForFurtherReading 163 Index 169 I NTRODUCTION DemocraticgovernanceintheUnitedStatesispremisedonthebeliefthatthe politicaluniverseisrationalandthatanopensocietyisessentialtothepreser- vationofdemocracy.Freespeechandafreepresshelptoprotectdemocracy fromsubversiveagentswhowouldseektousurppoweranddestroythesys- tem.Democraciesstrikeacarefulbalanceinprotectingrightsessentialtopo- liticaldissentwhileinstitutinganti-subversivemeasuresnecessarytopreserve democratic society itself. Although this balance has not always been main- tained,ultimatelydemocraticgovernmentrestsonthetrustofthepeoplein theirpublicofficials.Fearofconspiracymanifestsmistrustinpoliticallead- ershipandinitsabilitytomaintainorderbecauseithasbeencorruptedby subversiveforces.Giventhecontinuedpersistenceofallegedconspiraciesin Americanhistory,fromthecolonies’firstsettlementuntiltoday,theAmeri- candemocraticregimehasshownremarkableendurance. Politicalconspiracyisasecretandillegalagreementtoundertakeunlawful or wrongful acts to affect the political system. The Plot of Brutus and his brother-in-lawCassiustoassassinateJuliusCaesaronMarch15,44BCE,was aconspiracy.InAmericanhistory,theAaronBurrconspiracy(1805–07)in- volved a plot to remove the western territories and the Louisiana Purchase fromtheUnitedStates.TheplotbyfinanciersJayGouldandJamesFiskto cornerthegoldmarket,basedoninsideinformationprovidedbyPresident Ulysses Grant’s brother-in-law Abel Corbin and Assistant Secretary of the TreasuryGeneralDanielButterfieldin1869,wasafinancialconspiracyin- volvingpeoplehighingovernment.Inthetwentiethcentury,theinfiltration of Soviet spies into the U.S. government during the Franklin Roosevelt ad- ministrationwasapoliticalconspiracyconductedbehindcloseddoorswithin theKremlintoillegallyobtainAmericansecrets. While these and other examples can be found throughout history, most politicalconspiracieshavebeenimagined.Thosewhopromulgatesuchcon- spiraciespresentafantasticviewoftheworldinwhichasmallgroupofmen andwomen,operatingsecretly,candictateworldeventswithimprobableex- actitude.Conspiracytheoristsbelievethatthe“hiddenhistory”behindsuch conspiraciesisrevealedonlythroughclosestudyanddecipheringofappar- ently random events. Having attained this knowledge, conspiracy theorists believetheyhaveanobligationtowarntheirfellowcitizensofthedark,sub- viii | INTRODUCTION versiveforcesoperatinginsecret.Theyemployaconspiracylanguagethatal- lows ideological groups to convey shared worldviews. When an American conspiracist speaks disparagingly of “Rome” or “the New World Order” or “theBilderbergers,”forexample,thosewhosharethespeaker’spoliticalout- lookunderstandthefullimplicationsofthereference.Assuch,thelanguage ofconspiracyencapsulateslargerpresumptionsabouttheworldandhowit operates,andcodewordsbecomeatooltorallyfollowersandtogainnewre- cruitstospecificpoliticalpositionsonbothendsofthepoliticalspectrum. Inthiswaythereisattimesbutathinlinebetweenirrationalandrational fears.Indeed,theextentofconspiratorialfearswithinthehistoryofwestern democracies,especiallytheUnitedStates,seemstobeliepoliticalrationality. ConspiratorialfearswereevidentamongthefirstsettlersinNewEngland,the PuritansandthePilgrims,intheirconvictionthathighofficialsintheChurch ofEnglandwereintentonbetrayingtheProtestantReformationandreturn- ingtothepracticesandtheologyofRomanCatholicism,withitspromotion ofidolatry,superstition,ignorance,andhierarchicalcorruption.Fearsofcon- spiracyaboundedthroughoutcolonialAmerica,asseeninrelationswithNa- tiveAmericans,theSalemwitchtrials,repressionofreligiousdissent,andre- lationswiththemothercountry.HistorianBernardBailyn,inTheIdeological OriginsoftheAmericanRevolution,arguedthatthefearofaconspiracy—one thatreachedintothehighestcirclesoftheking’scourt—tosubverttheliber- tiesofafreepeoplewascentraltotheideologyoftheAmericanrevolutionar- ies.Assuch,rationalEnlightenmentthoughtcombinedwithanirrationalfear ofconspiracytoproduceAmericanrepublicanideology. Conspiracyplaysotherrolesinpoliticsaswell.Conspiratorialworldviews, for those who subscribe to them, have extrinsic value by rationalizing the world,eventhoughtheseworldviewsmightbeintrinsicallyirrational.Fur- thermore,tohavevalue,conspiracybeliefsmustappeartobesubstantiated. Thusconspiracistsspendaninordinateamountoftimediscoveringandmas- tering“evidence”tosubstantiatetheirviews.Thisallowsconspiracybelievers topresentthemselvesasscholarsofadifferentsort,autodidactswhoknow betterthantheexperts.Inthisway,conspiracyoffersamechanismforciti- zenstoacquireandsortconfusingandcomplexpolitical,economic,andso- cialinformationintoacarefullyfilteredconstructionoftheworld.Conspir- acyprovidesanarrativeforunderstandinghowtheworldisordered.Atthe sametime,conspiracyenhancestheself-esteemofthebelieverbyimparting “secret”and“hidden”knowledgethattherestofthepolitydoesnotknow.As aresult,believersinconspiracyfindpower,butofacertaintype:subversive power.Itexpresses,quiteoften,thedesireoftheweakorthoseseekingfur- therpowertoexertpowerthroughtheiruniqueknowledgeandunderstand- ingoftheworld.Further,conspiracyprovidesabondingexperienceforbe- lievers,asenseofcommunityofsharedintimateandpersonalinformation. Introduction | ix Thiscommunityexperienceisespeciallyimportantintimesofsocialchange, when conspiracy theories seem to become most prominent. And, finally, amongitsmyriadofroles,conspiracytheoriesallowpeopletoisolate“others,” thosegroupsorpeoplewhoarecategorizedasunhealthyorcorruptinginflu- encesonthegeneralpopulation. Becauseaconspiracytheoryvoicesdiscontentwiththeestablishedpoli- tical order and helps bond true believers through their shared subversive knowledge, it can appear more intense—and operationally useful—when a dominantpoliticalregimeisexperiencingchange.Duringperiodswhenthe establishedpoliticalordercomesunderattack,conspiracytheoriescanobtain greateracceptabilityamongsomepoliticalleadersandelementsoftheelec- torate. In such situations, both those defending the established regime and thosechallengingtheestablishedordermaysubscribetosuchtheories.Amer- ican political history is replete with examples of the relationship between regimechangeandtheprojectionofconspiracy.AstheFederalistPartyen- teredintoadeclinethatledtothetriumphoftheJeffersonianDemocratic-Re- publicans,archconservativeswithintheparty,ledbyNewEnglandministers suchasTimothyDwightandJedidiahMorse,drewuponananti-Enlighten- mentliteraturefoundinrevolutionaryFranceandEnglandrevealingaMa- sonicconspiracyoftheBavarianIlluminati.Inthe1820s,anti-Anglofinancial conspiraciesemergedasthepoliticalorderagainunderwentchange,giving risetoJacksoniandemocracy.Anti-Masonictendenciesfoundexpressionin theWhigPartythatrosetochallengetheDemocraticParty.Andinthevola- tilepoliticsofthe1850s,politicalconspiraciesabounded,focusingonnativist, anti-Catholic,andanti-Mormonsentiments. Thispatternfindssharperreliefwhenexaminedinthosestatesandregions experiencingintensepoliticalcompetitionintheabsenceofadominantpo- liticalpartyabletogainhegemonyamongtheelectorate.InantebellumAmer- ica,thesetheoriesfoundtheirmostviolentexpressioninfrontierstatesand territoriesthatwereupforgrabspolitically,creatingahothouseforconspira- cies.ThedeclineoftheWhigPartyinthe1850salsofueledthisphenomenon. Anti-MormonismledtoexplosiveoutbreaksofviolenceinMissouriandIlli- noisinthe1820sand1830s;theslaveconspiracy,whichmirroredtheaboli- tionistconspiracy,explodedinMissouriandKansasinthe1850s.Similarly, conspiraciesofthemoniedinterestsfoundpoliticalexpressionintheGreen- backPartiesinstatessuchasIndiana,Illinois,andMissouriinthe1870s.The Republican ascendancy of the 1890s coincided with the outbreak of anti- Catholic,anti-immigrant,anti-Semitic,andanti-moniedconspiracies.Such viewscouldbefoundineverysocialclassandregion,thoughtheseprejudices werenotuniquetoanyonepoliticalparty:theyreflectedtherhetoricofcon- spiracyusedtorallysupportersandtoexpressbaseprejudicesfoundamong followersofvariousparties. x | INTRODUCTION ThepoliticalrealignmentbroughtaboutbytheGreatDepressionandthe ascendancyoftheNewDealorderprovidedfertilegroundforconspiracists ontherighttoattacktheRooseveltadministrationonavarietyofcharges,in- cludingmanipulationofmoneyforthebenefitofinternationalists,infiltration ofthegovernmentbycommunists,andengineeringAmerica’sentryintothe SecondWorldWar.Fearsofconspiracy,however,werefoundalsoontheleft, as rumors spread of a military takeover of the government. In the postwar era,therightraisedconspiratorialfearsofthesubversionofnationalsover- eigntythroughcommunistinfiltrationandinternationalismoperatingunder avarietyofguises,includingtheUnitedNationsandgroupssuchastheBil- derbergers.Asliberalismcameunderchallengebyanascendantconservative political order, conspiracists both revived older theories and devised new onesthatrepresentedracialandethnicfearsinaglobalage.Andinthemod- ern era, conspiracy theory often incorporates a multitude of conspiracies. Moneyconspiraciesmightincludeanti-Jewish,anti-corporate,andanti-inter- nationalistperspectives,whicharenotuniquetotheleftorright.Othersuch perspectives that may be found regardless of ideology include anti-elitism, anti-corporatism,andanti-internationalism. Modern technology has helped disseminate conspiracy theories to the largerpublic.Books,pamphlets,movies,television,andtheinternethavein- undated American culture with conspiracy theories. Popular novelist John Grishamhasincorporatedconspiratorialthemesintomanyofhisbooks,in- cluding The Firm (1991), The Pelican Brief (1992), and The Runaway Jury (1996).FilmmakerOliverStonehaspromulgatedconspiracyattheboxoffice withtwomoviesbasedonU.S.presidents,JFK(1993)and,moreimplicitly, Nixon(1995).Arguablytheleadingsourceofconspiratorialvisionsincon- temporaryAmericahasbeenthepopulartelevisionseriesTheX-Files,which focusesontwoF.B.I.agents—theunconvincedDanaScully(GillianAnder- son)andtheconspiracistFoxMulder(DavidDuchovny)—whoareconstantly tryingtouncovergovernmentconspiracies,rangingfromaliencolonization oftheEarthtothegovernment’stestingofbiologicalweaponsonAmerican citizens.Thepopularityoftheshowwasremarkable.Itconsistentlyranked amongthetopprogramsduringitsrunfrom1993to2002,andin2006TV GuideplacedTheX-Filesinitslistofthetopfiftyshowsofalltime.Clearly, popularculturehasgreatlyinfluencedinterestinconspiratorialthinkingin modernAmerica. Theinternethasprovidedanimportanttechnologicalcomponentinthe distributionandaccessibilityofconspiracytheories.Conspiracistscanmain- taintheirownwebsites,createablogdiscussingconspiracies,andtranscribe textsfromolderconspiracybookstopostontheirwebsite.Theinternethas provedespeciallypowerfulinpromotingconspiraciesabouttheterroristat- tacksthatoccurredonSeptember11,2001.Conspiracytheoristsundertook
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