Political and social economy : its practical applications

82 Pages·1999·85.33 MB·English

by  John Hill Burton

Political Economy,
Western Economics in Japan: The Early Years
for Use in
Edited and Introduced by Hiroshi Mizuta, Nagoya University
Schools, and for
Outlines of Social Economy (1850)
William Ellis
bound with
Private Instruction
‘L’Economie politique au Japon’
Gustave Boissonade (1876)
Political and Social Economy: Its Practical Applications (1849)
John Hill Burton
WILLIAM AND
Political Economy, for Use in Schools,
and for Private Instruction (1852)
ROBERT CHAMBERS
William and Robert Chambers (eds.)
The Elements of Political Economy (1855)
Francis Wayland
The Elements of Moral Science.
With Questions for Examination (1858)
Francis Wayland
Social Science and National Economy (1875)
Robert Ellis Thompson
Handboek van Praktische Staathuishoudkunde (1878)
2 volumes
Simon Vissering
THOEMMES PRESS
Printed in England by Pear Tree Imaging Processing, Stevenage KYOKUTO SHOTEN LTD
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This edition co-published in 1999 by
CHAMBERS'S EDUCATIONAL COURSE.—EDITED BY
W. AND R. CHAMBERS.
THOEMMES PRESS
11 Great George Street, Bristol BS1 5RR, United Kingdom
KYOKUTO SHOTEN LTD
12, Kanda-Jimbocho 2-Chome, Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo, Japan
FOR
WESTERN ECONOMICS IN JAPAN: THE EARLY YEARS
8 volumes : ISBN 1 85506 619 X
USE IN SCHOOLS, AND FOR PRIVATE
INSTRUCTION.
Political Economy, for Use in Schools, and for Private Instruction (1852)
reprinted by permission from the copy in Hitotsubashi University Library
PUBLISHER'S NOTE
EDINBURGH:
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but
points out that some imperfections in the original book may be apparent.
PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS.
This book is printed on acid-free paper, sewn, and cased in a durable buckram cloth.
• Overstone is an imprint of Thoemmes Press. 1852.
NOTICE.
B that a knowledge of the principles of Political Economy
elieving
ought to form one of the departments in elementary education, we
have, with the assistance of a writer every way competent for the
task, prepared the present treatise on the subject. Political Economy,
as a science reduced to exact principles, is not ordinarily connected
with the less authorised definitions of social organisation. But in
a school treatise, it is thought proper to depart from this technical
distinction. When so much ignorance seems to prevail on the nature
of individual duties, and the very foundations of civil society are
EDINBURGH :
attempted to be undermined, it cannot but be important to instruct
PRINTED BY W. AND R. CHAMBERS.
the young in things vital to the wellbeing of states. To present, in
simple language, explanations on that hitherto neglected branch of
study—Social Economy—is therefore a leading object of the work now
submitted to the educator. It will be observed, that by the plan of
commencing with matter of moral and social concern, the principles
of political economy come gradually and naturally before the pupil,
aud may be mastered without difficulty.
W. & R. C.
*
EnmBVRGHj 1st March 1852.
(
I
CONTENTS.
Page
1
INTRODUCTORY—SOCIAL ORGANISATION,
2
THE FAMILY CIRCLE, ....
3
INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES,
6
CIVILISATION, .....
8
EQUALITY AND INEQUALITY—DISTINCTIONS OF RANK,
10
SOCIETY A COMPETITIVE SYSTEM,
12
OBJECTIONS TO THE COMPETITIVE SYSTEM CONSIDERED,
14
DIVISION OF MANKIND INTO NATIONS,
18
INTERCOURSE OF NATIONS WITH EACH OTHER,
20
ORIGIN OF (GOVERNMENT,
24
DIFFERENT KINDS OF GOVERNMENT,
28
LAWS AND NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS,
35
GOVERNMENT FUNCTIONS AND MEASURES, .
45
THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE,
49
THE NATURE OF POLITICAL ECONOMY,
O , 54
rigin and nature of property
58
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY, . t
61
PROTECTION OF THE PROFITS OR FRUITS OF PROPERTY,
63
EFFECTS OF A PARTITION OF PROPERTY,
67
LABOUR AND PRODUCTION*. ...
L , .
abour as the source of value
78
DIVISION AND ORGANISATION OF LABOUR­
82
MACHINERY, .....
91
WAGES9 • • • • •
96
CAPITAL*.
vi CONTENTS.
TRADE AND PROFIT,
MONOPOLY — COMPETITION, .
FOREIGN COMMERCE,
MONEY,
PAPER-CURRENCY,
BANKING,
CREDIT, .
COMMERCIAL CONVULSIONS, .
ACCUMULATION AND EXPENDITURE,
-INSURANCE AGAINST CALAMITIES,
POLITICAL ECONOMY.
TAXES, . • ...
INTROJMTCTORY—SOCIAL OR/GANISATION.
1. M ^ in being placed upon the earth by his Divine
a
Creator, has been invested with certain powers and dispositions
which bear a relation to the qualitie or the external world, and
appear as designed to enable him to live"’ and thrive in this
transient scene of being.
2. His happiness, as far as thfct scene of existence is con­
cerned, depends on the success with which he can adapt
himself to each accidental circumstance as it arises, and the
skill with which he applies himself to the improvement of those
circumstances. He is not offered ready means of indulgence,
but called upon to observe that, by a due degTee of mental and
bodily exertion, he may supply himself with what mil satisfy
his wants and gratify his tastes. This is simply equivalent, to
an intimation from above, that he is designed to be
an active
. He must work that he may enjoy. Even the physical
being
evils with which he is surrounded appear as part of the appointed
means for sustaining the activity of the wonderful machine
forming the human constitution. We struggle with difficulties,
and good results from the struggle.
3. Human society commenced without any science to guide it.
Nevertheless, led merely by their wants ana their inclinations,
men have established various social .arrangements and regu­
lations in which they find a convenience and a benefit; and at
length out of the best of these a science of social and political
economy has been formed. It cannot be pretended that all of
these arrangements and regulations are perfect beyond improve-
A
2 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES. 3
ment, but many of them have ceriaiidy the voice of experience the world, he is a rival and to some extent a self-seeker; but
in their favour. Totally new. forms of social and political within the home circle no such feelings enter. A divine bene­
organisation have been sometimes proposed arid have met with volence and kindliness shine there, as if foreshadowing some
advocates ; but they are usually founded on some asstLinpiion better condition of humanity yet to come. The great happiness
which a true view of human nature does not justify. Ii fe hence derived would manifestly be lost to mankind if the
tolerably evident that we- have here no safe ground to proceed
mutual fidelity and attachment of parents were not fixed by
upon but the actual qualities and dispositions of man, and that
some such arrangement as marriage.
any social system in which these were overlooked or opposed
/ 7. It is not more a dictate of nature that the man and the
would be a failure. woman should form the little community called a family, than
that numbers of men and women should associate for the
forming of more extensive societies, under the names of nations
THE FAMILY CIRCLE. or states. Some animals are solitary in their habits, their
whole needs being supplied independently of each other; others
4. The groundwork of social economy is in the J
xam ily are gregarious, apparently for the mere pleasure of each other’s
. It is a rule of humannature for the man and Voman company in feeding. By a like impulse, man is social; he
circle
to associate themselves by momage in a permanent union; it is
both has an enjoyment in the society of his fellow-creatures,
equally a rule for their children to live with them in the enjoy­
and, by association, can effect many good ends for his own
ment of protection and sustenance till, the years of maturity,
advantage, which could not be attained otherwise. Individuals
Thus a family is constituted, an association in which the best
under perverted feelings have attempted to live solitarily; but
affections have scope, and which conduces beyond every other
few have by such means rendered themselves happier, still less
institution to the happiness of mankind. A family may expand
conduced in any degree to the benefit of their fellow-creatures.
in the course of generations to a clan or sept, or even to a con-
8. In all societies of human beings there are common pecu­
siderable nation. Generally, we see a nation composed of a
liarities of character, and of habits of thought and feeling, by
cluster of families, speaking one language, and having other
which their association is rendered more agreeable. There are,
peculiarities in common; it is, as it were; an enlarged family.
however, diversities of disposition, and inclinations to peculiar
We can in few instances trace a nation to its origin’; but we
convictions, which have a tendency to separate mankind. It is
generally see it marked by certain features of body and mind,,
everywhere admitted, that society only can exist if individuals
shewing it to be spiling from one common stock.
will consent >to exercise a certain forbearance and liberality
5. The married life is evidently productive of happiness, and
towards their fellow-creatures, and to make certain sacrifices
tends to the good of society.. It is. therefore much more likely
of their own peculiar inclinations. Thus only can the requisite
to be the dictate of nature, or appointment of God, than any
degree of harmohy be attained.
opposite arrangement. Among the lower animals, whenever
the young are at once independent of the parent, there is, no
pairing; wherever the progeny are broug’ht into the world in a
INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES.
tender state, requiring the care of both parents, there the pair­
ing arrangement exists, however temporary. The young of ■
I
9. While God has given man the gift of life, he has also
the human race are eminently delicate in infancy, and remain
given him the capacity to support that life, provided he duly
long in that state; there, accordingly, the marriage state is
employs the means. This capacity for exertion, however, would
peculiarly called for, and there, we may be assured, the tendency
be.useless without liberty to use it. Accordingly, every human
to it has been planted by nature with peculiar care.
being, of whatever colour or country, has, by a law of nature,
6. As a direct consequence of the natural affections, human
the property of his own person. He belongs to himself. In
beings are deeply interested in the nurture, protection, < and
ordinary language, man is born free. This freedom he is not
general wellbeing of their offspring. The rule of nature is,
at liberty to sell or assign. Neither, in justice, can any one
that the parent has no selfishness towards a child. He works
take away Jhis personal freedom, so long as he conducts himself
for it, suffers for it, and takes infinite trouble in guiding’ and
properly and does not injure his neighbours. A man may enter
instructing it, without any grudge. As against all the rest of
into a contract to serve another for a reasonable length of time,
INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND DUTIES. 5
4 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ECONOMY.
for hire; but in doing so he still retains the property of his regulated system of relief. By such means, Providence seems to
have arranged for the remedy of those diseases and infirmities
own person, enjoys the fruits of his own industry, ana no one
is entitled to intrude on his domestic arrangements. . In law, which are inseparable from our mortal state, and it therefore
this degree of freedom is called civil liberty—that is to say,' can never be discreditable for the helpless to be thus succoured
liberty secured by the laws and subject to the regulations of the by their .fellow-creatures. It is also to be admitted that indi­
viduals, though both able and willing to provide for themselves,
civil government.
10. In the formation of laws for the general good, all men may temporarily be prevented from doing so,, through various
accidental causes not involving any misconduct of their own.
are to be regarded as upon one level. The life of the youngest
infant and the humblest beggar is alike sacred with that of the In such cases, too, a brotherly help is due from man to man.
strongest and the richest man. The smallest, piece of property We are, nevertheless, to bear fully in view the grand
of a poor man is not less entitled to protection than the estate principle, that a society is only equitably constituted, and
of the noble. All men are also entitled to freedom of personal only can be successfully conducted, when each works diligently
movement, to freedom in the choice of an occupation, to freedom - ana honestly for the general benefit, and lives independently
in the choice of amusement. That self-respect or self-love with upon the remuneration which his industry or private resources
which all for wise purposes are inspired, is likewise to be pro­ afford him.
tected equally in all men. These rights proceed upon an idea 13., The reasonableness of this view becomes apparent, when
which instinctively rises within us, that we are all in one- an individual takes into consideration that the others around
respect equal. Meh, indeed, by reason of their very diverse him are only persons like himself, sent into the world to live by
endowments and opportunities, naturally fall into 'grades, some labour; and his idleness only can be indulged in by throwing
attaining to a great influence over others. But this does not iii additipnal.labour upon them, or taking part of their gains, so
the least interfere with that equality of consideration which is as 'to .diminish their fair share of the enjoyments of this life.
due to the life, liberty, self-respect, and tangible possessions Idleness, therefore, cannot honestly be a rule of life with any
one. Even to say that an opportunity of working cannot be
of all. . ... ' .
11. Along with the rights which each individual enjoys m found, is not always a good excuse; nor is society properly
society, are imposed the duties he owes to it. He has, in the under any obligation, beyond that of brotherly charity, to
first place, the duty of providing for his own wants, an(i for provide work for those who profess to be idle against their
the wants of his family, so that he and they may not become a will; for it is well known that occupation cannot be effectively
burden upon others. Since, moreover, he enjoys protection from . sought for except by the person desiring it for himself.
society under favour of its various laws and regulations, he is Society is, therefore; entitled by all means consistent with
bound to respect, in his own practice, those laws and regula­ humanity to discourage, and even to punish the idle.
tions. If he does not provide for himself and his own, while 14. It appears equally reasonable to expect of every indi­
he is enjoying the rights which society respects in him, he is, vidual in society an observance of its leading moral rules and
in a manner, defrauding it. And were all, , or even any con­ legal provisions. If it is better to live- in a civilised than in a
siderable number to act in this manner, society could not any barbarousI c• ommunity, we are not entitled to the benefit unless
longer exist. So, also, if many persons, while expecting pro­ we contribute our part to what makes a civilised state—namely,
tection from the laws, were to be continually infringing them, morality and law; we must help to support these conditions.
law and society itself would speedily come to an end. Should we act otherwise, we are stealing from society one of its
12. The idea of a perfect society supposes an assemblage of greatest benefits. It is exactly the same kind of delinquency as
free citizens, each contributing his labours for the benefit of the to live idly upon the public. As society is thus greatly injured,
whole, and receiving an appropriate remuneration, and each and might, it the evil were carried far, be entirely destroyed, it
respecting those laws which have been ordained for the general is entitled to punish misdemeanours and crimes with a view to
benefit. In reality, no society is without feeble and sickly their prevention. Some it- endeavours to repress by means of
persons who, being* unable to support themselves, have to be the check resting in public opinion ; for others it has to employ
beholden to their neighbours for support. It is a duty of the courts of justice, witn their apparatus of judges, jailers, houses
healthy and vigorous to assist these unfortunate persons,1 land of correction, and severities of various kinds. Its title to do all
this is usually done either by the charity of individuals or a this1 has been acknowledged in every community since the
CIVILISATION. 7
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ECONOMY.
6
though a primitive barbarism is natural, to remain in it is not
world began, and to support it in this title is the duty of every
so, but can only be the result of some external interference.
citizen in every free state.
As an .illustration of this doctrine, one peculiarity of savage life
15. It may happen that certain laws are not in all respects
is extreme filthiness, both as to the dwelling and as to the
either agreeable or suitable to advanced views of social policy.
.person.' Cleanliness comes with civilisation. Now no one
Nevertheless such laws, as well as all others, must be respected
would say that it is not a natural feeling which impels us to be
so long as they remain unrepealed by constituted authorities:
cleanly. All that can properly be said as to the filthiness which
to break them by violence leads inevitably to disorder and
•prevails in the savage state is, that the natural inclination to
public loss. Even to hold the laws in disrespect is considered a
cleanliness has not as yet manifested great activity: it lies, like
mark of extreme ignorance; for they are the bulwark of every
an intellectual faculty in the infant, undeveloped.
man’s right, as regards life, property, and privileges. When
18. It is, however, a great mistake to suppose that savage
laws are deemed to be objectionable, the constitution prescribes
life is free from what may be called artificial arrangements or
peaceful and legal methods, of discussing their demerits, and of
conventionalities. Certain barbarous tribes bind a board on the
repealing them by legislative enactment.
head in infancy, in order to mould it into a flat shape. The
Chinese, who are only half civilised, put a small iron shoe upon
the\ feet of their female infants, in order that they may be
CIVILISATION.
clumped up into a small space. True civilisation presents no
such gross interferences with the course of nature.
16. It is shewn by history that nations advance from a bar­
19. It could also be easily shewn that—to use a common ex­
barous to a civilised state. The chief peculiarity of the barbarous
pression—human nature only gets fair play in a civilised state.
state is, that the lower passions of mankind have there greater
Thej population of savage countries is always extremely small
scope, or are less under regulation; while the higher moral
in proportion to the ground occupied—seldom, it is supposed,
qualities of our nature are little developed, or have comparatively
above one person to a square mile: this is in consequence of
little play. In that state the woman is the slave instead of the
the scarcity of food. Under favour of tillage, regular pastur­
companion of her husband ; the father has uncontrolled power
age, and the various arts of civilisation, a population is allowed
over his child; and, generally, the strong tyrannise over and
to grow till there may be as many as 250 at an average upon
rob the weak. From the consequent want of confidence be­
every square mile occupied. In savage countries the term of
tween men, there can be no great combinations for the general
huinan life is usually short, from the hardships encountered,
benefit; in short, no institutions. In the state of civilisation
and the difficulty of preserving the lives of infants and old
all is reversed: the evil passions are curbed, and the moral.
people. As civilisation advances it is found that the average
feelings developed: woman takes her right place; the weak
duration of life regularly increases : it has undergone a sensible
are protected: institutions for the general benefit flourish.
improvement in Britain even during the last hundred years.
Seeing that the savage can wander with unbounded freedom
• 20. In our own country, which is called civilised, there are
over his deserts, and that society imposes a certain .check upon
• many things which belong properly to a low state of society.
the inclinations of the individual, some have thought that the
■Vast multitudes of the people are uneducated, and consequently
barbarous state is that in which there is greatest freedom : but
.as ignorant as savages : many others, through dissolute habits
the freedom which there exists is only a freedom to starve; a
and positive crime, have fallen into a miserable state. Some
freedom to tyrannise if we have the power; a freedom to commit
portions of the population in remote districts remain in the
crimes unpunished. It is only after civilisation has imposed
primitive idle habits of their early forefathers, and enjoy scarcely
and can maintain equal laws for all, that true freedom can exist.
any of the blessings of civilisation. Thus there are certain
17. It has also been asserted that the barbarous state is
' localities which may be said to be still harbourages of barbarism,
natural, while that of civilisation is artificial: but the word .
though surrounded by all the appearances of the civilised state.
artificial is here misused. The qualities which men shew, in
■ It. is to be hoped, however, that these partial evils are all
civilisation are as natural as those shewn in barbarism. Their
remediable.
going on to the forms of civilisation, to its institutions, and to
- 21. A distinction is to be drawn between evils which exist in
a submission to its mild restraints, is purely a result of their
spite of civilisation and those partial and temporary inconve­
inherent dispositions; and it might perhaps be shewn/, that
8 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ECONOMY.
9
EQUALITY AND INEQUALITY—DISTINCTIONS OF RANK.
niences which rank among1 its consequences. For the former
In some countries such external marks of honour are not con­
we may expect a remedy in the progress of civilisation itself ;
ferred; but the inclination to look with respect to such distinc­
the latter require a different treatment. In civilisation, pro­
tions in the natives of other countries is not the less shewn by
perty being* greatly increased, there is consequently ^ great
the people—proving how natural it is to confer marks of merit,
increase to the temptations of the poor. Constant improve­
anditq venerate them.
ments in mechanical arrangements and in modes of conducting
,25.• There is generally little disposition to condemn the
business, at the same time tend to displace individuals from
practice of conferring honours and titles on meritorious citizens;
their positions, and to throw working-men temporarily out of
. bdt it is not at first sight so clear that such honours ought to be
bread. It is necessary, in order to counteract these unavoidable
allowed to pass from the meritorious person who gained them,
evils, that men should be enlightened as to the entire system
to-a son who may perhaps be of opposite character: it has,
of things in which they live, so that they may be able to dis­
nevertheless, been a practice of most nations to render such
cover and adapt themselves to lines of exertion in which their
honours hereditary. When we look narrowly into human
skill and industry will be rewarded. It may be safely said/ that
nature, we detect the feelings which may be presumed to have
even in the most high-strained system of competition there
led to this practice.
will.be a place for every honest and industrious man, if it
26. When a pan approaches the term of his life, and thinks of
could be found out: an improvement in the means of finding;
the disposal of his property, no one appears to have so good a
it out is one of the things which may be reasonably expected
claim to it as his cnildren: it seems right that they who are,
as civilisation advances.
as >it were, to continue his being in a new portion of time,
shouldslikewise inherit every other thing that belonged to him.
The feeling being natural, all men sympathise with it, and
EQUALITY AND INEQUALITY—DISTINCTIONS OF RANK.
accordingly sanction what it dictates. It is not easy to separate
the titles which a man may have had conferred upon him
•It
22.. It has been admitted that there is a natural equality in
from the tangible wealth he may have acquired: hence these
men, to the effect that the life, liberty, self-respect, and tangible
are apt to be allowed also to descend to the next generation.
possessions of all are alike entitled to respect. • It is equally,
.27.,-Thus, it appears, arises Rank as independent of Merit.
nowever, an ordinance of nature that men are born with various
It has been often condemned as an absurdity, but we neverthe­
qualities and powers; some strong, some weak; some of clear
less find that mankind in general are as much disposed to
and active intellect, others dull and sluggish; some much more
venerate a title in the second as in the first possessor; nay, as
inclined to sober, industrious courses than others; and so forth1:
generations .pass on, it becomes even more respected through
the consequence of which is, that a great inequality rises
time. A feeling so universal must be founded in some inherent
among them, as far as prosperity, dignity, and power over
tendency of the ’mind; and most probably it arises from the
others are concerned. Even if two persons naturally equal
disposition to respect what is old. Men unconsciously argue
start together, and the one is educated and the other not, they
thus: This man, enjoying a title in the twentieth generation,
will quickly become unequal. Merely to possess knowledge
has that which no existing human power could at once create or
where others are ignorant, is to possess a power over those-
confer. The same argument is at the foundation of the respect
other persons.
1 for J an ancient monarchy. There may be many persons capable
23. These natural circumstances are the foundation of the
of ruling, as far as sagacity, integrity, and a philanthropic
grades and ranks which have existed in almost all communities
disposition are concerned; but no one can at once confer upon
raised above the savage state.
himself this peculiar historical distinction. There being, accord­
24. Where an individual has shewn distinguished qualities;
ingly, in matters of government, not merely a necessity for
especially if these have been employed to any extent in the
competent intellectual and moral gifts, which are far from being
public service, or for the benefit of mankind, it is the custom in
rare,.but a need for some special quality which is very rare, so
most states that some mark or title of honour is conferred upon
as«to decide the general obedience towards some centre, royalty
him. This being a public acknowledgment of merit, ana a
and aristocracy become institutions in most civilised countries.
tangible and readily appreciated thing, is naturally valued by
It is* not here necessary to shew that they are indispensable
the possessor, and serves as a stimulus to the ambition of others.
to the. government of mankind; but that they are not purely
Il
SOCIETY A .COMPETITIVE SYSTEM.
10
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ECONOMY,
during the ages of feudalism, became great gatherers of wealth.
accidental and wholly irrational, as some have asserted, is, from
They kept their acquisitions generally secret, but the rude
the above considerations, sufficiently evident. aristocracy of the age discovered them, and often extorted them
with grosp cruelty and injustice. Indeed, in the days of
feudalism 'and chivaliy, it was held contemptible to advance
by ithp arts of peace, as violence had the upper hand, and the
SOCIETY A COMPETITIVE SYSTEM.
I • feudaj. baron could appropriate to himself whatever the peaceful
•
28. The disinterested affection and the willingness to make
^worker had acquired.
sacrifices for each other, which are the characteristics of -the
32. : If this were the manner in which emulation prompted
family circle, do not follow men beyond it into the ordinary
mjen to advance in life and excel each other, it might truly be
intercourse of the world: there each pursues his own course,
said, that it was- an evil rather than a blessing: but it is quite
relies on his own efforts, and endeavours to accomplish his own
otherwise when men’s natures are purified, and their faculties
objects. In doing so, all compete less or more with each other.
.developed by cultivation. In a state of civilisation, a man in
Hence society at large is said to be formed' on the competitive
advancing himself, benefits his species. With few exceptions,
principle. It is much to the advantage of human nature that
every effort by which he can elevate himself, does service to
it should be so, since, were there not emulation among man­
his fellow-creatures. He does not become affluent by seizing
kind, and motives for individual exertion, many valuable
on what other people have produced, but by himself producing.
0®
services would fail to be performed. 33. Thus, great inventors who have obtained distinguished
29., It does not follow, however, that in thus seeking’his own
fame, and have often made large fortunes, have been signal
happiness, and pursuing his own objects as regards tne means
;behefactors to their- species: such as Watt, Hargraves, Ark-
of livelihood and otherwise, each man is to trample down dr
rwrightj' Stephenson, and others who have brought to perfection
injure his neighbour. Set a prize before a mob of untutored
the steam-engine, the manufacturing machinery, and the rail­
barbarians, and they will tread each other down or tear each
way systemi Such, also, are the great authors and artists
other’s eyes out to get at it: but with civilised men it is
who have appeared from time to time: and not only those
understood, both as the wisest and most moral arrangement,
who are conspicuous and distinguished, but those who have
that in pursuing his own object in life, whatever it be, no one
humbly helped to carry out their projects, have benefited the
is to injure his neighbour. In a barbarous state of society,
rest/ qf the world whale seeking their own emolument and
one man can seldom advance himself without doing harm to
advancement.
another: hence the active and enterprising men among .’such
34. Even in a civilised state of society there are still some
people are generally robbers or pirates. But in civilised life,
who desire to advance) themselves by doing harm instead of
the best paths to opulence and distinction are generally occupied
good to others: they attempt to enrich themselves, not by
by those who do good rather than evil to the rest of mankind.
producing, but by seizing on what others have produced. In
. 30. There are two ways in which an individual can aggran- .
few and very rare instances such persons are successful, but in
dise himself: he may seize what his neighbours possess, or he
• civilised life society is against them: they are denounced as
may create possessions for himself. In a state of society where
criminals by the law. They pursue their occupation in fear
arms and personal strength alone are respected and obeyed,1 it
..and trembling, and generally lead a miserable life.
is evident that the former of these must be the chief road to
, -35. Thus, it is seen that the emulation and ambition of man­
success. Accordingly, in rude and imperfect states of society,
kind may have the fullest scope without their doing injury to
we find that man in various ways aggrandises himself at the
each other; with the assurance, indeed, that the exertions of
expense of others: sometimes it is by conquest and rapine, the
each are more likely to benefit than to injure his specie^.
conquerors being robbers on a large scale; sometimes it is by
Thus, then, the domestic affections seem wisely implanted'in
forcing men to be slaves, or, in other words, compelling them
the breast, in order that the weak and the dependent may
• by force to give up the fruit of their labour. receive support and care. Aggrandisement and emulation are
31. In many Oriental nations it is still dangerous to appear
unknown within the family circle, because there disinterested­
rich, as the passions of some despotic tyrant may be excited
ness (and affection are the true sources of good. But with­
to pillage the person who seems to be so. The Jews!|Keing
out that; circle, and in the world at large, emulation and a
deprived of all other inducements to exercise their''abilities