Political alliances in the Abbasid period

313 Pages·2015·3.23 MB·English

The Role of Women in the Būyid and Saljūq Periods of the Abbasid Caliphate (339-
447/9501055&447-547/1055-1152): The Case of Iraq

Submitted by Reem Saud AlRudainy to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy in Arab and Islamic Studies in November 2014

This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no
quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement.

I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no
material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other
University.

Signature: Reem

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Abstract

The need for Muslim women’s emancipation is very often tied to what some
scholars argue is the Islamic oppression and victimization of women; by a religion
they argue is strictly patriarchal. As one of the greatest documented eras in
medieval Islamic history, the Abbasid Caliphate, has been one of the most widely
covered by researchers of Islamic history studies and will be the case study of this
thesis. Through a historical analysis, this study finds that despite the extensive
coverage by researchers of the period, research on women and their roles during
the time has not yet claimed its rightful status. Indeed, in comparison to the studies
of Islamic history, the study of Muslim women remains, at best, undeveloped.

The lack of resources dealing with the roles of Muslim women in history and the
subsequent sparse coverage of their achievements can be directly linked to the
way people, both within academia and contemporary media, perceive women in
Islam. This thesis merged the theories of Gaye Tuchman, Fatima Mernissi and S.
Jay Kleinberg to form a troika through which the roles of Abbasid women may be
re-assessed. As such, this research proposes a solution to remedy the invisibility of
Muslim women and their roles in history: by creating a theoretical framework
centred on the causes of said invisibility. In applying this framework, the thesis
examines the textual materials by critically analysing the various aspects of
women’s role in Abbasid society including political, social and religious facets of life
in the Būyid and the Saljūq periods.

This study of women, in said periods of Abbasid Iraq will highlight the major roles
they played in shaping and developing Islamic society. It hence advances
knowledge of this era in an original manner by the analysing of women’s history in
Islam, via a new approach.

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Acknowledgement
ميحرلا نمحرلا ةللا مسب

Alhamdulillah, all praises to Allah for His blessing and the strength to complete this
thesis. This thesis would not have been accomplished without the much-
appreciated guidance of Professor Ian Netton, who helped me to develop my ideas
more fully throughout the study and provided me with valuable resources and
support. None of this would have been possible without the generous practical
support of Kuwait University, and in particular, the entire academic staff in the
History Department.
My debt of gratitude extends to my dear husband, Jasem AlNejada, who inspired
and motivated me through the years. I just love the way you loved me and
supported me in my study. You are the best thing that has ever happened to me;
thanks for being a great husband and friend

My deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents: my mother and my father who
gave me both life and love, I do not know how to thank you enough for providing
me with the opportunity to be where I am today. I also thank my father and mother
in law, my sisters Sahar, Khloud, Nada and Sara Alrudainy for their constant
cheerful support and their endless love; and to my dearest friends especially
Dr.Heba Ali, Aki Iskander, Dr. Dema Muhmood, Ashwaq AlSiri and Dr.Sara Alokely
for their camaraderie, and others for their kindness and moral support during my
study.

Last but not least my son, Abdullah, who brought the sunshine to my world. I will
always love you. This thesis is dedicated to the best three men in my life my father,
my husband and my son.
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Table of Contents
Title ………………………………………………………………………………..…….1
Abstract……………………………………………………………………….…..……..2
Acknowledgemnt……………………………………………………..………………..3
Table of contents……………………………………………………………..………..4
List of Tables .......................................................................................................... 6
Glossary .................................................................................................................. 7
1.Introduaction........................................................................................................ 9
1.1 The Abbasid Caliphate: An Historical Background ............................... 10
i. The transition of Power and the Consequent Policy Changes ............... 11
ii. The Emergence of the Būyid (reg. 339-447/950-1055) ......................... 12
iii. The Fall of the Būyid and the Rise of the Saljūq ................................... 13
iv. Women, Power and Politics under the Abbasid .................................... 15
1.2 Literature Review: ...................................................................................... 17
1.3 The Methodology of the Research ........................................................... 37
1.4 The Theoretical Framework ...................................................................... 39
1.5 The Structure of the Research.................................................................. 45
2.The Political Role of Women in the Abbasid caliphate: Women, Influence,
Authority and Power ............................................................................................ 48
2.1 Political Alliances and the Pursuit of Power .......................................... 50
2.1.1 Political Alliances during the Būyid Period in Iraq (334-447/945-1055)
..................................................................................................................... 52
i. Mu‘izz al-Dawla (reg.334-356/945-967) .................................................. 53
ii. ‘Izz al-Dawla Bakhtiyār (reg.356-367/967-978) ...................................... 56
iii.‘Adud al-Dawla (reg.367-372/978-983) ................................................... 58
2.1.2 Political alliances during the Saljūq Period in Iraq (447-552/1055-1157)
..................................................................................................................... 60
i.Ţughril Beg (reg.431-455/1040-1063) ...................................................... 66
ii. Sulṭān Malikshāh(reg.465-485/1072-1092) ............................................ 66
iii. Mas’ūd b. Muhamed b.Mālikshāh (reg.528-547/1134-1152) ................ 67
2.1.3 The Significance of Political Alliances (Būyid and Saljūq): An Analysis
..................................................................................................................... 71
2.2 Power behind Closed Doors: The Role of al-ḥarā’ir in Politics ......... 74
2.2.1 The Role of al-ḥarā’ir during the Būyid Era: ...................................... 74
2.2.2 The Role of al-ḥarā’ir during the Saljūq Era ...................................... 86
2.3 The Life at the Court of Ḥarīm ................................................................ 112
2.3.1 al-Jawārī and Abbasid Politics ......................................................... 112
2.3.2 The Qahramânas and Abbasid Politics ........................................... 135
2.3.3 Women and the Politics of Titles ..................................................... 151
i. General Titles ......................................................................................... 152
ii. Special Titles ......................................................................................... 155
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3.The Roles of Abbasid Women in Religious Education,Literature and Culture
(334/447– 950/1055) ............................................................................................ 164
3.1 Women and Religious Education ........................................................... 165
3.1.1 Women and Traditional Sciences .................................................... 168
i. The Study of the Holy Quran ................................................................. 176
ii. The Study and Narration of Hadith ....................................................... 178
3.1.2. Women and Intellectual Sciences .................................................. 184
i. Ribāṭ & al-waʻẓ ........................................................................................ 185
3.2 Women and Language ............................................................................. 195
3.3 Women and Poetry .................................................................................. 197
3.3.1 Sufī Poetry ........................................................................................ 198
3.3.2 Ghazal Poetry .................................................................................. 201
3.3.3 al-Rithā’ poetry ................................................................................. 203
3.3.4 Madḥ poetry ..................................................................................... 204
3.3.5 al-Hijā Poetry .................................................................................... 207
3.4 Abbasid Women and Singing ................................................................. 210
4.Reconstructing Society: Abbasid Women -Economy, Finance and Property
.............................................................................................................................. 219
4.1 Women’s Legal Competence .................................................................. 221
4.2 Women’s Occupations and Crafts ......................................................... 230
4.3 Women and Construction ....................................................................... 240
4.3.1 al-Maḥallāt ....................................................................................... 240
4.3.2 Jawāmīʻ ............................................................................................ 242
4.3.3 Madāris ............................................................................................ 246
4.3.4 Ribāṭ ................................................................................................. 249
4.3.5 Houses ............................................................................................. 254
4.3.6 Bridges and the Repair of River Courses ....................................... 258
4.3.7 Women and the Reconstruction Works on Ḥajj Road .................... 260
5.CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 264
Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 276

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List of figures and tables

Figure 1: The theoretical framework for studying the role of women during the
Būyid and Saljūq periods.

Table 1: List of the Būyid al-ḥarā’ir, the wives of the Caliphs and Princes.

Table 2: List of the Saljūq al-ḥarā’ir, the wives of the Caliphs and Sultans.

Table 3: List of Jawārī who were later elevated to ‛ummahāt awlād during the
.Būyid and Saljūq periods

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Glossary

Abna’: soldiers of Khurāsānī origin settled in Baghdad.
Al-Barāʼah: acquittal note. It is a process, more or less similar to the registration of
official documents nowadays and was used to precisely determine the period of
waiting (al-ʻiddah) during which a woman may not remarry after being widowed or
divorced.
Bayt al-Ḥikmah: House of Wisdom.
Bīmāristānāt: hospitals.
D. Died
Al-Dalālāt: whose work dealt mainly with matchmaking and facilitating the
demands of men who wished to select a bride.
Dīwān: list of those entitled to government salaries
Fatwā: is a formal legal opinion on a point of law, the term “law” applying, in Islam,
to all civil or religious matters, the act of giving a fatwā is a futyā or iftāʾ, so it is a
formal legal opinion given by a muftī.
Al-ḥarā’ir: Relates to a class of freeborn noble women in the caliphate court.
Ḥarīm: the space where the cross-generational or extended family, including
women and children lived and where any indoor family tasks took place.
Al-ḥisbah: Fiqh wise, means commanding with appropriate courtesy and
interdicting acts of abomination.
Jawāmīʻ : Mosques.
Jawārī: the female slaves who were, ‘defined as women who had been taken as
war booty, or were born of parents who were both slaves, or bought’.
Al-Kāghad: is a type of smooth and tender paper.
Kātib al-sayyidah: clerks (office workers or registrars).
Khātūn: title of ladies of high rank in Turkish, It was employed by the Saljūqs.
Madāris: Schools.
Al-Maḥallāt Neighbourhoods
Al-Muḥtasib: monitored the conduct of men and women in the streets and markets
as indicated in al-ḥisbah books.
Q. The Holy Qur'an.
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Al-Qabbālah: midwife.
Qahramâna: This was the Ḥarīm stewardess, chief of the administrative hierarchy.
Al-ṭurarat : rogues or scoundrels.
‘Umm walad: when a woman slave gives birth to a child by a free man she
acquires the status of ‘umm walad, mother of child.
Reg. Reign
Ribāṭ: is the spiritual place to practice Religion rituals
umma‘: The whole community of Muslims bound together by ties of religion.
Al-Wirāaq: all activities related to the papermaking and stationery business, such
as the copying, binding, selling and purchasing of related items.
Zawāj: Marriage

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1
Introduction

The Abbasid period is one of the most richly documented eras in medieval Islamic
history; and the significant amount of information to be found in books, art,
archaeology and other sources testifies to its importance. These sources focus on
the various aspects of the history of the Abbasid dynasty pertaining to politics,
society, economy and culture. The literature of the Abbasid era, of which much was
written during that period, constitutes this thesis’ primary sources and will make up
the core material used to answer the following questions: What roles did women
play during the Būyid and the Saljūq periods of the Abbasid caliphate? Were
women properly historicized during these periods? Does the lack of historical
records of individual women indicate a severely limited political and social role for
females in this period?

As is the case with the great majority of medieval Islamic sources, particularly
primary ones, there is a very limited range of material concerning women in the
Abbasid era in the form of books which consider them as subjects of study. In fact,
women who were mentioned in these primary sources were involved in
relationships with powerful men of that period, whether as the wives of the caliphs
or as queens, or as jawārī the female slaves who were defined as women who had
been taken as war booty, or were born of parents who were both slaves.
Furthermore, most of these sources were written or put together by men. As such,
the limitations of the sources covering women in the Abbasid period are
undeniable.

Scholars'1 interest in studying women of the Abbasid period started in the middle of
the twentieth century when debates on women’s rights were particularly prominent,

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These include scholars such as, N.Abbot, Two Queens of Baghdad: Mother and Wife of Hārūn al-Rashīd,
(London: al Saqi Books, 1986) & M. Jawad,Sayyidāt al-balāṭ al-ʻAbbāsī,(Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 1970), ect.
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and a consequence of their classification under human rights. Interest in the status
of Muslim women became one of the biggest issues debated in the light of
questions regarding the portrayal of women in Islam, their rights and the alleged
oppression they suffer in a society governed by religion and mostly known for
paternal dominance, or what scholars term, ‘masculine society’. What can modern
feminist historians deduce from the little we do know of women of the period under
discussion; and what kind of influence, behind the scenes, did their female
contemporaries exert on the men of power?

1.1 Historical Background

This section will not focus on specific, detailed information about the Abbasids, but
will instead provide an historical background of their politics, system of authority,
and religion, through which one can investigate further the life of women and their
roles during the period. In order to better and more fully comprehend the
magnitude of women’s roles during the Abbasid era, this section will establish the
chronological parameters of the study by providing a brief background to each of
the periods discussed: the Būyid and Saljūq eras.

Before doing so however, it is important to note why this era, and particularly the
aforementioned periods, was chosen to chronologically frame this study. At the
heart of this thesis is an argument regarding the need to make a clear distinction
between what is/was religious and what is/was cultural when one refers to a
“Muslim Society”. Both the religious and cultural differences between the Būyid and
Saljūq periods offer one a backdrop against which various aspects of life during
these periods may be compared. From a religious standpoint the Būyids followed
the Shīʻah teachings whereas the Saljūqs adhered to the Sunnī one. Culturally,
both were influenced by Persian and Turkish civilisations, respectively. Each of
these elements influenced the Abbasid Caliphate in different ways: religiously,
culturally and ultimately, politically, as will be discussed throughout this research.

The Abbasids assumed power and became rulers of the Muslims in 132/749, and
consequently changed the empire’s political systems with a new regime. The early
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