Pluralism, Co-optation and Capture: Navigating the Civil Society Arena in the Arab World

342 Pages·2012·1.03 MB·English

PLURALISM, CO-OPTATION AND CAPTURE:
NAVIGATING THE CIVIL SOCIETY ARENA IN THE ARAB WORLD

A Dissertation
submitted to the Faculty of the
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
of Georgetown University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in Government

By

Sarah Elisabeth Yerkes, M.A.

Washington, DC
April 17, 2012
Copyright 2012 by Sarah Elisabeth Yerkes
All Rights Reserved

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PLURALISM, CO-OPTATION AND CAPTURE:
NAVIGATING THE CIVIL SOCIETY ARENA IN THE ARAB WORLD

Sarah Elisabeth Yerkes, M.A.

Thesis Advisor: Marc M. Howard, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

This dissertation examines the development civil society sector in the Arab world and its
relationship with the state from a bottom-up perspective. Focusing on the regime of Hosni
Mubarak in Egypt between 1990 and 2010, I both show that variation exists amongst
development CSOs (DCSOs) in terms of their type and interaction with the regime and I explain
what determines that variation. By conducting eight in-depth case studies of development civil
society organizations, I argue that DCSO type, a variable that takes into account the interaction
of three primary independent variables: rhetorical outside support, access to foreign funding, and
level of perceived threat to the regime, provides the strongest explanation for DCSO behavior.
By analyzing the specific patterns of interaction of these three independent variables, it is
possible to predict whether a DCSO will choose the outcome of pluralism (choosing full
autonomy from the regime), one of two forms of co-optation - administrative co-optation (in
which the DCSO allows for some level of administrative control by the regime) or ideological
co-optation (in which the DCSO changes their ideological or political agenda in order to conform
to regime requests), or capture (allowing itself to be fully co-opted by the regime). By attempting
to understand what strategies development civil society organizations use to navigate the unique
configuration of liberalization under coercion, a situation in which the authoritarian regime
allows for the gradual opening of the political space with one hand and seeks to limit the ability
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of all CSOs to work independent of the state with the other, this dissertation contributes both to
the literature on civil society in the Arab world, as well as to the growing literature on the hybrid
regimes of the Middle East that has become particularly relevant after the start of the Arab
Spring.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would first like to thank the David L. Boren National Security Education Program, the
Harry S. Truman Good Neighbor Award Foundation and the Association for Research on
Nonprofit and Voluntary Associations, all of whom provided financial support for the research
that went into this dissertation. There is no doubt that without the regular meetings of my DSG
(dissertation “survival” or “support” group, depending on the day), I would not have made it out
of the gate, let alone to the finish line. To the original four, Kim Hill, Julia Lau Bertrand, Beth
Mercurio and Alex Berg, thank you for reading all of my proposal drafts and for your enduring
patience during the years it took me to finally get it right. Thank you also to the more recent
additions to the group, Zacc Ritter and Cory Julie. Your feedback and support has been
invaluable.
I would also like to thank my first study group, Ben Fishman and Tricia Bacon. Had you
not helped me make it through stats successfully, I never would have finished graduate school.
But more than that, thank you for your continuing support both academically and emotionally
over the years long after stats ended. You have each become dear friends to me as well as
colleagues.
Each of my dissertation committee members has had a major role in inspiring this project
beyond the support they have given me in their formal roles as committee members. Thank you
to my adviser, Marc Howard, for first introducing me to the topic of civil society in my
coursework. Your passionate interest in the subject is what initially drew me to this topic and
what has sustained me throughout the Ph.D. process. Thank you also for your dedication to the
doctoral students of the Government Department of Georgetown. Throughout my years in the
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department you have been our most vocal advocate and your work is appreciated. Thank you to
Dan Brumberg for your groundbreaking work on civil society and political reform in the Arab
world. Reading your work convinced me to come to Georgetown in the first place and my
research has benefitted greatly from your expertise and guidance. And thank you to Steve
Heydemann for transcending the role of professor to friend. You taught me, an ardently anti-
political science political science graduate student at the start how to do comparative politics.
But more than that, you have consistently fought for me and encouraged me when I was ready to
quit. Your warm smile, even when delivering tough criticism, has given me the encouragement
to see this project through.
I would also like to acknowledge the incredible support of Dan Byman. Though not
formally a committee member, you have provided me essential support throughout my graduate
school career. As your RA for seven years, I have been blessed with the opportunity to see
behind the curtain of a true policy and academic machine. Your ability to successfully navigate
both worlds better than most people navigate one has been a continuing inspiration to me. Thank
you for all of your help and for allowing me to work with you and for you.
To my family, thank you for raising two intellectually curious and creative daughters.
You instilled in me the constant desire to learn and an intense interest in the world around me.
Dad, watching you as a professor and an academic, whether sitting in the back of your classroom
as you taught, accompanying you on digs, or being surrounded by your graduate students
growing up, you made the decision for me to pursue graduate school a simple choice. I am so
proud to be the next in the long line of Dr. Yerkes. Mom, your love of travel and cultural
anthropology background has carried over into my interest in understanding the people and
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cultures across the world. And during the bleaker years of the dissertation process, thank you for
always being there with words of encouragement and support. Em, thanks for your constant
support and emotional encouragement. When the rest of the family harassed me about finishing,
you always stood up for me. You are more than my sister, you are my best friend.
There is no one who bears the burden of the dissertation process more heavily than the
spouse. Chuck, words cannot possibly explain my gratitude for the emotional (and financial)
support you have given me over the past six years. You have believed in me from the beginning
and allowed me to complete a life-long goal. You never complained when I left you alone to run
off to Cairo or Morocco. You pushed me when I needed to be pushed and picked me up off the
floor when I was ready to throw in the towel and open a cupcake shop. I could extol your virtues
for pages, so suffice it to say that you really are the best.
And to my little girl, thanks for putting up with the erratic hours and not always healthy
lifestyle the dissertation writing process requires. I am so excited to meet you in a few months
and so incredibly lucky to be giving birth to you and this dissertation at the same time.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the tireless work of the Egyptian civil society actors,
academics and democracy promoters with whom I met during my three research trips to Egypt
between Fall 2009 and Summer 2011. Although I cannot name you individually, I am truly
inspired by you and your commitment to your cause. I encourage you to continue your work to
bring a better quality of life to all Egyptians.

Many thanks,

Sarah Elisabeth Yerkes
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter I: Introduction and Background ......................................................................... 1
Definitions............................................................................................................ 6
Why Egypt? ....................................................................................................... 10
State Control over Civil Society: How the Egyptian Regime has Manipulated
CSOs over Time ................................................................................................. 12
Methodology ....................................................................................................... 24
Organization of the Dissertation ........................................................................ 26
Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 28

Chapter II: Theory.......................................................................................................... 30
Alternative Explanations for State-Civil Society Relations in the Arab World 40
The Civil Society Sector in Egypt ..................................................................... 44
The Argument: What Determines DCSO Strategy Choice? .............................. 58
Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 78

Chapter III: Pluralism .................................................................................................... 79
What is Pluralism? ............................................................................................. 82
Case Study: Coptic Evangelical Organization for Social Services .................... 86
Case Study: Association for the Development and Enhancement of Women . 105
Case Study: Egyptian Association to Support Street Children ........................ 121
Why do DCSOs Choose Pluralism? ................................................................. 135
Outliers .............................................................................................................. 140
Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 147

Chapter IV: Co-optation .............................................................................................. 149
What is Co-optation? ....................................................................................... 151
Case Study: Resala ........................................................................................... 158
Case Study: Dar al Orman ............................................................................... 170
Case Study: Nahdet el Mahrousa ..................................................................... 180
Case Study: New Horizon Association for Social Development ..................... 199
Case Study: Education for Employment Foundation ....................................... 210
Why do DCSOs Choose Co-optation? ............................................................. 220
Outliers ............................................................................................................. 227
Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 231

Chapter V: Capture ...................................................................................................... 233
What is Capture? .............................................................................................. 233
Why do DCSOs Choose Capture? ................................................................... 241
Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 253

Chapter VI: Beyond Egypt........................................................................................... 255
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Civil Society in Morocco ................................................................................. 257
Civil Society in Jordan ..................................................................................... 270
Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 285

Chapter VII: Summing it All Up: What Determines CSO Strategy? .......................... 288
What Determines CSO Strategy? ...................................................................... 289
Areas for Future Research .............................................................................. 302
Civil Society and the Arab Spring .................................................................... 306

Appendix: Tables ........................................................................................................ 312

Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 318

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 1. Distribution of Egyptian CSOs according to LaTowsky’s Typology: Giza,
Sharqiya and Sohag Governorates, 1993 ............................................................................ 48
Table 2. Civil Society Groups in Egypt (1991) .................................................................. 49
Table 3. Typology of CSOs ................................................................................................ 51
Table 4. CSO Strategies by Type ........................................................................................ 69
Table 5. CSO Strategies by Type – Morocco and Jordan ................................................... 284
Table 6. Predicted and Actual CSO Strategies ................................................................... 312
Table 7. Case Selection ....................................................................................................... 315
Table 8. Case Studies Included in Chapter Three (Pluralism) ........................................... 316
Table 9. Case Studies Included in Chapter Four (Co-optation) ......................................... 317

Figure 1. Relationship of CSO Types ................................................................................. 57
Figure 2. Hierarchy of CSO Types ..................................................................................... 58
Figure 3. Continuum of CSO Strategies ............................................................................. 62
Figure 4. Possible DCSO Paths .......................................................................................... 63

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