Playing Spades: The Rich Resources of African American Young Men by Alfred R. Schademan ...

209 Pages·2008·0.84 MB·English

Playing Spades: The Rich Resources of African American Young Men

by

Alfred R. Schademan

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the

Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Supervised by

Professor Nancy Ares

Margaret Warner Graduate School of Education and Human Development

University of Rochester
Rochester, New York

2008
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CURRICULUM VITAE

The author was born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania on November 15, 1960. He
attended The Pennsylvania State University from 1979 to1983 and graduated with a
Bachelor of Science degree in biology in 1983. He also attended the University of
Utah from 2001 to 2003 and graduated with a Master’s of Science degree in
education in 2003. He came to the University of Rochester in the fall of 2004 where
he began his doctoral studies in education. He pursued his research in teaching and
curriculum under the direction of Professor Nancy Ares.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Although the road to completing a dissertation is marked with many long
hours of isolation and individual work, it is at its core a social construction involving
the efforts and sacrifices of many. First, I would like to acknowledge all of the
Spades players at Biddie Mason High School who allowed me to invade their social
space at their school to observe their games and ask them questions. Without them
and their amazing talents as Spades players, this work would not have been possible.
Second, I would like to thank my adviser and friend Nancy Ares. Her wisdom, her
deep knowledge of the field of educational research and theory, her belief in my
abilities, and her inexhaustible patience guided me from my first graduate course
through the final edits of this study. Also, I would like to thank my committee
members Jeff Chopin and John Settlage for their support and critical insights of my
work. Third, I would like to thank my friends, Dr. Abraham Deleon, Lisa Perhamus,
and Dawn Evans, for their encouragement, support, and for allowing me to vent my
frustrations when I needed to do so. A special thanks goes to Chris Ghinazzi for her
tremendous help in formatting this document. Finally, and most importantly, I would
like to thank my partner Jeanne and my son Connor. Jeanne supported me in so many
ways: economically, psychologically, and emotionally, throughout my graduate
programs. Her belief in my abilities, even when I lost all hope of ever completing,
gave me the strength to finish. We both earned our Ph. Ds over the past four years.
As for Connor, he is my inspiration, the light of my life. Thanks for the wrestling
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matches, the amphibian hikes, your stories, and the countless skirmishes, all of which
restored my belief that play is the best therapy.
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ABSTRACT

Playing Spades: The Rich Resources of African American Young Men

Alfred R. Schademan

Research has shown that African American young men as a demographic
group occupy the lowest levels of academic performance in both science and
mathematics. In spite of this educational problem, little research has been conducted
on the knowledge related to these disciplines that these young men learn and develop
through everyday cultural practices. Such knowledge is needed in order to: 1) combat
the deficit views that many teachers currently hold of African American young men,
and 2) inform teachers interested in implementing pedagogies in their classrooms that
draw upon the knowledge of African American young men.
To add to our knowledge in this field, this study examines the resources that
African American young men learn, use, and develop through a card game called
Spades. Specifically, the study identifies and analyzes the models and model-based
reasoning that the players use in order to win games. The study focuses upon
modeling as it is central to both science and mathematics. To imbed player models
and reasoning in context, the study employs a syncretic theoretical framework that
examines how Spades has changed over time and how it is currently played in a high
school setting. The qualitative study uses ethnographic methods combined with play-
by-play analyses to reconstruct games and examine player strategies and reasoning
that guide their decisions.
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The study found that the players operate from a number of different models
while playing the game. Specifically, the players consider multiple variables and
factors, as well as their mathematical relationships, to predict future occurrences and
then play cards accordingly. Further, the players use a number of resources to win
games including changing the game to maintain a competitive edge, counting cards,
selectively memorizing cards played, assessing risk, bluffing, reading partners as well
as opponents, reneging, estimating probabilities, and predicting outcomes. The player
models and resources bear striking resemblance to what scientists and mathematicians
do when modeling. Lastly, the study identifies eight features of Spades that make it a
rich context for the learning and development of significant forms of reasoning. Most
importantly, Spades is an empowering context through which the players both learn
and display their resources and abilities in order to deal with complex situations.
Consequently, the study provides evidence that many African American young men
routinely employ types of reasoning in everyday practices that are robust and relevant
to science and mathematics.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CURRICULUM VITAE ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

ABSTRACT v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
The Research Question 7
Rationale for the Study 8

CHAPTER 2: THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP AND RESOURCE-RICH
VIEWS OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS 10
Overview of the Chapter 10
The Current Achievement Gap in Science and Mathematics 11
Contributing Factors to the Achievement Gap 13
Teacher Bias as a Factor Contributing to the Achievement Gap 15
Culturally Responsive/Relevant Pedagogy and the Achievement Gap:
From Cultural Deficit to Resource-Rich Views of Students 19
The Scientific and Mathematical Resources of African American
Young Men Learned and Developed in Cultural Practice 29
Modeling and Model-Based Reasoning 37

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 45
Overview of the Chapter 45
Theoretical Framework 45
Research Methods 58
Issues in Qualitative Research 69

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS AND RESULTS: A SYNCRETIC VIEW OF A
CULTURAL PRACTICE 72
Overview of the Chapter 72
Diachronic Analysis: The Evolution of a Cultural Practice 72
A Synchronic lens: A Play-by-Play Analysis 100
Findings of the Syncretic Analysis 111
Contextual Features of New School Spades 114

CHAPTER 5: PLAYER MODELS AND MODEL BASED REASONING
IN SPADES 119
Overview of the Chapter 119
Bidding in New School Spades 120
Leading in New School Spades 131
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Playing from Second, Third and Fourth Positions 140
Connecting Player Models to the Research on Modeling 147
Contextualizing Player Models and Resources 149

CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS 153
Summary of Central Findings 153
Modeling and African American Students 156
Spades as an Empowering Context for African American Young Men 164
Creating Empowering Contexts in Science and Mathematics Classrooms 166
Further Implications 170
Limitations of the Study 172
Possibilities for Future Research 176
Conclusion 178

REFERENCES 181
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LIST OF TABLES

4.1 Informal Survey of Game Playing at Biddie Mason High 77
4.2 Terminology Used by Spades Players 93
4.3. Spades Game - March 3, 2007 102
5.1 Score Sheet Showing Use of Single and Double Blind Strategy 127
5.2 Partial Spades Game Highlighting Jason’s Medium Spade Lead
During Book Seven 139
5.3 Trump Cards Played From Second and Third Positions 142
5.4 The Multiple Positions From Which Kevin Plays During a Single
Game 144
5.5 The Different Models That Kevin Uses in One Game, Books 1-6 145
5.6 The Different Models That Kevin Uses in One Game, Books 7-13 146
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LIST OF FIGURES

4.1 The evolution of Whist, Bid Whist and Spades 74
5.1 Model of player reasoning used during bidding in New School Spades 124
5.2 Model of the common leads in New School Spades 132
5.3 Model of leads observed either once or infrequently 136
5.4 Plays from second, third and fourth positions 141
5.5 Diagram summarizing the findings of the syncretic analysis of
Spades highlighting both the features of the context and player
resources learned and developed 151