Plastics and Sustainability: Towards a Peaceful Coexistence between Bio-based and Fossil Fuel-based Plastics

287 Pages·2011·6.143 MB·English

by  Michael Tolinski(auth.)

Plastics and Sustainability
Scrivener Publishing
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Salem, MA 01970
Scrivener Publishing Collections Editors
James E. R. Couper Ken Dragoon
Richard Erdlac Rafiq Islam
Norman Lieberman Peter Martin
W. Kent Muhlbauer Andrew Y. C. Nee
S. A. Sherif James G. Speight
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Plastics and
Sustainability
Towards a Peaceful Coexistence
between Bio-based and Fossil
Fuel-based Plastics
Michael Tolinski
Scrivener
WILEY
Copyright © 2012 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.
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Cover design by Russell Richardson
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
ISBN 978-0-470-93878-2
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 21
Contents
Acknowledgements xi
Preface xiii
1 General Introduction 1
1.1 What is Environmental Sustainability? 4
1.2 Facing the Contradictions of Plastics 8
1.3 Plastics at Play in Consumer Lifestyles 10
1.4 Controversies Concerning Plastics:
Recent Examples 11
1.4.1 PVC and Phthalate Plasticizers 12
1.4.2 Plastic Shopping Bags 14
1.4.3 Health Effects of BPA (Bisphenol-A) 16
1.5 The Desire to be "Green" 19
1.5.1 Consumer Interest in Sustainability 19
1.5.2 Sustainability: Views and Counterviews 21
1.6 The Course of This Book: A Chapter-by-Chapter
Overview 26
References 29
2 The Life Cycles of Plastics 31
2.1 "Green Principles" - A Basis for Discussion 33
2.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) - A Baseline Tool 37
2.2.1 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) 39
2.2.2 LCA: Controversies and Limitations 40
2.2.3 LCA/LCI: Plastics-related Examples 43
v
vi CONTENTS
2.3 Plastic Lifetimes: Cradle-to-Gate...
to Gate-to-Grave 46
2.3.1 The "Cradle": Polymer Feedstocks
and Production 46
2.3.2 "Gate-to-Gate": General Plastics
Use-life Impacts 50
2.3.3 The "Grave": Disposal, Recycling,
and Biodegradability 52
2.4 Towards a Hierarchy of Choosing Plastics
for Sustainability 66
References 68
3 Polymer Properties and Environmental Footprints 73
3.1 Background on Polymers and Plastics 75
3.1.1 "Green Chemistry" Principles Most Relevant
to Plastics 76
3.2 Common Commodity Thermoplastics 82
3.2.1 Polyethylene (PE) 82
3.2.2 Polypropylene (PP) 87
3.2.3 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC, or "Vinyl") 89
3.2.4 Polystyrene (PS) 91
3.2.5 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) and Related
Polyesters 92
3.3 Traditional Engineering Thermoplastics 95
3.3.1 Nylon or Polyamide (PA) 96
3.3.2 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) 97
3.3.3 Polycarbonate (PC) 99
3.4 Traditional Thermosets and
Conventional Composites 100
3.4.1 Unreinforced Thermosets 101
3.4.2 Conventional Composites 103
3.5 Biopolymers: Polymers of Biological Origin 104
3.5.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 106
3.5.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs):
PHB and Related Copolymers 110
3.5.3 Starch-based Polymers 113
3.5.4 Protein-based Polymers 114
CONTENTS vii
3.5.5 Algae-based Polymers 115
3.5.6 Blends of Biopolymers 115
3.6 Additives and Fillers: Conventional
and Bio-based 116
3.6.1 Common Additives 117
3.6.2 Fillers 118
3.6.3 Fiber Reinforcement 119
3.6.4 Nanocomposites 125
3.7 Concluding Summary 125
rences 126
Applications: Demonstrations of Plastics
Sustainability 133
4.1 Trends in Sustainable Plastics Applications 136
4.2 Sustainable Plastics Packaging 137
4.2.1 Traditional Plastics Bags and Containers:
Use, Disposal, and Recycling 140
4.2.2 Bio-based Plastic Packaging 142
4.2.3 "Greener" Foam Packaging 144
4.2.4 Key Points about Plastics Packaging
and Sustainability 146
4.3 Sustainable Plastics in Building
and Construction 146
4.3.1 Recycled / Recyclable Construction
Applications 149
4.3.2 Wood-plastic Composites 150
4.3.3 Key Points about Plastics Sustainability
in Construction 151
4.4 Automotive Plastics and Sustainability 152
4.4.1 Fuel-saving Contributions of Plastics 152
4.4.2 Recycling and Automotive Plastics 154
4.4.3 Bioplastics in the Automotive Industry 155
4.4.4 Key Points: Plastics Sustainability
in the Automotive Industry 157
4.5 Specialized Applications and Plastics Sustainability 158
4.5.1 Electrical/Electronics Applications 158
4.5.2 Medical Plastics and Packaging 159
viii CONTENTS
4.5.3 Agricultural Applications 161
4.6 Conclusions about Sustainable
Plastics Applications 162
References 163
5 Design Guidelines for Sustainability 169
5.1 Green Design Principles 172
5.1.1 Minimize Material Content 174
5.1.2 Exploit a Material's Full Value
in the Design 175
5.1.3 Design Only to Fulfill Service
Durability Requirements 178
5.1.4 Minimize Non-functional Features 179
5.1.5 Focus on Single-material Designs 179
5.1.6 Incorporate Renewable Content 182
5.2 The Wildcard: Consumer Preferences
in Green Design 183
References 184
6 Sustainable Considerations in Material Selection 187
6.1 A Broad Example of Materials Selection:
Plastics vs. Metals and Glass 191
6.2 Material Selection for Common High-Volume
Plastics Applications 193
6.2.1 Plastics Selection for Beverage Bottles: PET vs.
rPET vs. bio-PET 193
6.2.2 Plastics Selection for Thermoformed
and Flexible Packaging 197
6.2.3 Selection for Housewares and Food
Service Tableware 199
6.3 Bio-based Plastic Selection 202
6.3.1 Selecting Bio-based Resins: PLA, PHA,
TPS, and Bio-based PE 203
6.3.2 Selecting Natural Fiber Plastics
Reinforcement 207
6.3.3 Selecting Engineering (Bio)polymers 212
6.4 The Selection Process: A Visual Approach 214
References 219
CONTENTS ix
7 Processing: Increasing Efficiency in the Use of Energy and
Materials 221
7.1 Optimizing Resin Recycling 223
7.1.1 Reprocessing Scrap and Post-industrial
Material 223
7.1.2 Recycling Technologies for Post-consumer
Plastic 226
7.2 Optimizing Plastics Processes for Sustainability 231
7.2.1 Optimizing Process Water Use 231
7.2.2 Optimizing Process Energy Consumption
of Existing Machinery 233
7.2.3 Choosing New Machinery for Sustainability 236
7.2.4 Sourcing Options for "Green"
Processing Energy 237
References 238
8 Conclusion: A World with(out) Sustainable Plastics? 241
8.1 Trends Affecting Future Global Plastics Use 244
8.1.1 Consumer Needs and Market Growth 244
8.1.2 Fossil Fuel Availability and Price 247
8.1.3 Alternative Feedstock Trends 248
8.1.4 Industry Priorities in Responding
to Calls for Sustainability 250
8.1.5 Plastic Bans and (Never Ending?)
Controversies 252
8.2 Future Progress in Promoting Plastics Sustainability 256
8.2.1 Improved Partnerships, Standards, Industry
Practices, and Public Education 256
8.2.2 New Sustainability-Enhancing Uses of Both
Fossil- and Bio-based Plastics 265
8.2.3 From R&D to Real World: Newer, More
Renewably Based Polymeric Materials 268
References 269
Index 273
Acknowledgements
Solving problems related to the sustainability issues surrounding
plastics must be a collaborative process if it is to be fruitful. This
book acknowledges that need for collaboration by referencing the
research and arguments of hundreds of industry professionals who
have studied and/or reported on sustainability issues over recent
years. These professionals often address difficult, critical technical
issues that are typically not reported on by the mainstream press,
but which are essential for understanding the overall argument
about plastics and sustainability. I appreciate the commitment of
these people; their work is admirable, especially the efforts of those
who have presented complex views on sustainability while still
trying to balance the interests of all stakeholders.
I also want to thank the editorial staffs at the Society of Plastics
Engineers and John Wiley & Sons in Hoboken, who over the past
eight years have often given me "free rein" to focus my articles for
Plastics Engineering magazine on sustainability issues in the industry.
The research required greatly aided me in creating this book. I also
wish to thank those who commented on early drafts of the book, and
my publisher Martin Scrivener for his interest, helpful guidance, and
patience.
XI