Table Of Content

S E V E N T H E D I T I O N P I P E L I N E RULES THUMB OF H A N D B O O K Quick and accurate solutions to your everyday pipeline problems E.W. McAllister, Editor AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO ELSEVIER Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier. 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK Copyright (cid:1) 2009 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: (þ44) 1865 843830, fax: (þ44) 1865 853333, e-mail: [email protected]. You may also complete your request on-line via the ElsevierSciencehomepage(http://www.elsevier.com),byselecting‘‘CustomerSupport’’ and then ‘‘Obtaining Permissions.’’ Recognizing the importance of preserving what has beenwritten, Elsevier prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Application submitted British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-1-85617-500-5 For information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications Visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com 09 10 11 12 13 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America Contents 1: General Information, 1 Belts and Shafts......................................... 14 Determine length of a V-belt............................................. 14 Basic formulas....................................................................... 2 Calculate stress in shaft key............................................... 15 Mathematics—areas.............................................................. 3 Calculate V-belt length using simple equation................. 15 Mathematics—surfaces and volumes.................................. 4 Estimate the horsepower that can be Rules of exponents................................................................ 5 transmitted by a shaft..................................................... 16 Recommended drill sizes for self-tapping screws.............. 5 Determine pulley speed....................................................... 5 Miscellaneous............................................. 16 Calculate volume in horizontal storage tank with ellipsoidal or hemispherical heads.................................. 6 How to estimate length of material contained ASTM standard reinforcing bars......................................... 7 in roll............................................................................... 16 Pressure rating for carbon steel flanges............................. 7 Convenient antifreeze chart for winterizing cooling systems................................................................ 16 Cables and Ropes........................................ 8 How to determine glycol requirements to bring a Estimating strength of cable................................................ 8 system to a desired temperature protection level........ 17 Find the working strength of Manila rope......................... 8 Weight in pounds of round steel shafting........................ 17 How large should drums and sheaves be for various Properties of shafting......................................................... 18 types of wire rope?........................................................... 8 Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws.......... 19 Find advantages of block and tackle, taking into Common nails..................................................................... 20 account pull out friction................................................... 9 Drill sizes for pipe taps...................................................... 20 Safe loads for wire rope....................................................... 9 Carbon steel—color and approximate temperature.......... 20 Stress in guy wires.............................................................. 10 Bolting dimensions for flanges.......................................... 21 Strength and weight of popular wire rope....................... 12 Steel fitting dimensions...................................................... 22 Measuring the diameter of wire rope............................... 12 ANSI forged steel flanges.................................................. 23 Wire rope: field troubles and their causes....................... 12 Trench shoring—minimum requirements......................... 24 Capacity of drums............................................................... 14 Reuniting separated mercury in thermometers............... 25 v vi Contents Typical wire resistance....................................................... 25 Pipe Laying................................................ 47 How to cut odd-angle long radius elbows........................ 26 How to determine the degrees of bend in a pipe How to read land descriptions.......................................... 27 that must fit a ditch calling for a bend in both Sample sections showing rectangular land descriptions, horizontal and vertical planes........................................ 47 acreages, and distances.................................................. 28 How to bend pipe to fit ditch—sags, overbends, and Size an air receiver for engine starting............................. 29 combination bends.......................................................... 47 Dimensions of hex nuts and hex jam nuts....................... 30 Pipe bending computations made with Color codes for locating underground utilities ............... 31 hand-held calculator....................................................... 48 Approximate angle of repose for sloping Calculate maximum bend on cold pipe............................ 52 sides of excavations......................................................... 31 Determine length of a pipe bend..................................... 53 Wind chill chart.................................................................. 32 Length of pipe in arc subtended by any angle................ 53 Pipeline Pigging......................................... 33 Average pipelay table—underground................................ 54 Average pipelay table—on supports.................................. 55 Sizing plates........................................................................ 33 Allowable pipe span between supports............................. 55 Caliper pigging.................................................................... 33 How engineers make pipe fit the ditch............................ 56 Cleaning after construction................................................ 33 Flooding for hydrotest........................................................ 34 Pipe Lowering........................................... 59 Dewatering and drying....................................................... 34 How to lower an existing pipeline that is still Estimate volume of onshore oil spill................................ 34 in service.......................................................................... 59 Estimating spill volume on water...................................... 36 Fluid Power Formulas....................................................... 37 Welding...................................................... 62 When should steel be preheated before welding?........................................................................... 62 2: Construction, 39 Welding and brazing temperatures................................... 63 Mechanical properties of pipe welding rods.................... 63 Project Scoping Data................................. 40 Lens shade selector............................................................. 64 Project scoping data worksheet for major Pipeline Welding ....................................... 64 facilities............................................................................ 40 How many welds will the average welder make Right-of-Way.............................................. 42 per hour?......................................................................... 73 How to determine the crop acreage included in a How much welding rod is required for a mile right-of-way strip............................................................. 42 of schedule 40 pipeline?................................................ 73 Clearing and grading right-of-way: labor/equipment How many pounds of electrodes are required considerations.................................................................. 43 per weld on line pipe?................................................... 73 Estimating manhours for removing trees......................... 43 Welding criteria permit safe and effective Estimating manhours for removing tree stumps.............. 44 pipeline repair................................................................. 74 Clearing and grading right-of-way..................................... 44 Cross country pipeline—vertical down electrode consumption, pounds of electrode per joint................ 80 Ditching..................................................... 45 Guidelines for a successful directional crossing bid package...................................................................... 81 How many cubic yards of excavation in a mile of ditch?.................................................................. 45 Shrinkage and expansion of excavated and compacted soil................................................................ 45 3: Pipe Design, 89 Ditching and trenching: labor/equipment considerations.................................................................. 45 Steel pipe design................................................................. 90 Properties of pipe............................................................... 95 Concrete Work .......................................... 46 Length of pipe in bends..................................................... 98 How to approximate sacks of cement Calculation of pipe bends.................................................. 99 needed to fill a form....................................................... 46 Spacing of pipe supports.................................................. 101 What you should know about mixing and American standard taper pipe threads (NPT)................ 103 finishing concrete............................................................ 46 British standard taper pipe threads................................ 104 Contents vii Normal engagement between male and female What you should remember about electrical threads to make tight joints......................................... 105 formulas......................................................................... 136 Hand-held computer calculates pipe weight, How to calculate microwave hops on level ground....... 136 contents, velocity........................................................... 105 For quick determination of the horsepower per Formulas and constants of value in solving problems ampere for induction motors (3 phase) at relating to tubular goods.............................................. 108 different voltages........................................................... 137 How to calculate the contraction or expansion Chart of electric motor horsepower for of a pipeline.................................................................. 109 pumping units............................................................... 137 Estimate weight of pipe in metric tons per kilometer.. 109 Pumping stations............................................................... 138 How to find pipe weight from outside diameter and Floodlighting Concepts........................... 139 wall thickness................................................................ 110 What is the maximum allowable length of Terms................................................................................. 139 unsupported line pipe?................................................ 110 Floodlighting calculations................................................ 139 Identify the schedule number of pipe by direct Point-by-point method..................................................... 139 measurement................................................................. 110 Beam-lumen method........................................................ 140 Determine buoyancy of bare steel pipe......................... 111 Design procedure............................................................. 140 Determine buoyancy of bare and concrete-coated Conductor size conversion chart—Metric to AWG....... 141 steel pipe in water and mud........................................ 111 Commonly used switchgear device numbers................. 142 Weights of piping materials............................................. 112 Bonding the grounding system to building and Allowable working pressure for carbon steel pipe......... 112 structure foundations.................................................... 143 Find the stress in pipe wall due to internal pressure... 113 How to calculate stress in aboveground/belowground transitions...................................................................... 114 5: Hydrostatic Testing, 145 How to identify the series number of flanged fittings.. 117 Dimensions of three-diameter ells with tangents.......... 117 The Benefits and Limitations of Spectacle blind thicknesses.............................................. 117 Hydrostatic Testing.............................. 146 Polypipe design data......................................................... 118 Hydrostatic testing for pipelines..................................... 157 Appendix A............................................... 163 4: Electrical Design, 121 Volume of water required to fill test section................. 163 Volume required at test pressure.................................... 164 Electrical design............................................................... 122 Hazardous locations.......................................................... 123 Appendix B.............................................. 165 NEMA enclosure types.................................................... 124 How to use charts for estimating the amount Size portable electric generators..................................... 125 of pressure change for a change in test Typical wattages for tools and appliances....................... 126 water temperature........................................................ 165 Knockout dimensions....................................................... 126 Basis for chart development............................................ 168 National Electrical Code tables....................................... 127 Compressibility factor for water...................................... 168 Electrical formulas............................................................ 131 Hydrostatic test records................................................... 168 Full load currents—single phase transformers.............. 131 Conduit size for combinations of cables with different outside diameters.......................................... 132 Minimum bending radius for insulated cables for 6: Pipeline Drying, 169 permanent training during installation....................... 132 Full load currents—three phase transformers............... 134 Pipeline Dewatering, Cleaning, Motor controller sizes....................................................... 134 and Drying........................................... 170 Voltage drop on circuits using 600V copper conductors in steel conduit.......................................... 135 Dewatering........................................................................ 170 Determine the most economical size for Cleaning pipelines............................................................ 171 electric power conductors............................................ 135 Brush pig run with gas..................................................... 171 How to find the resistance and weight of Brush pig run with liquid................................................ 171 copper wires.................................................................. 136 Internal sand blasting....................................................... 171 viii Contents Chemical cleaning............................................................. 172 How to determine the efficiency of a cathodic Pipeline drying.................................................................. 172 protection rectifier........................................................ 242 Moisture content of air.................................................... 174 How to calculate the voltage drop in ground Commissioning petrochemical pipelines......................... 176 bed cable quickly.......................................................... 243 Vacuum drying.................................................................. 179 What is the most economical size for a rectifier cable?............................................................................. 243 How to estimate the number of magnesium 7: Control Valves, 183 anodes required and their spacing for a bare line or for a corrosion ‘‘hot spot’’................................ 244 Control valve sizing formulas........................................... 184 How can resistivity of fresh water be Sizing control valves for throughput............................... 188 determined from chemical analysis?........................... 244 Control valve selection..................................................... 193 What will be the resistance to earth of a Relief Valve Sizing, Selection, single graphite anode?.................................................. 245 How to estimate the monthly power bill for a Installation, and Testing...................... 195 cathodic protection rectifier......................................... 245 Rupture disc sizing........................................................... 199 What will be the resistance to earth of a group of Rupture disc sizing using the resistance to graphite anodes, in terms of the resistance flow method (K )......................................................... 200 of a single anode?......................................................... 245 R Variable orifice rotary control valves............................... 202 How can the current output of magnesium rod used for the cathodic protection of heat exchanger Sizing Valves for Gas and Vapor............. 204 shells be predicted?...................................................... 245 Basic valve flow-capacity coefficient (C )...................... 204 What spacing for test leads to measure current V Visualize pump and control valve interaction on a pipeline?................................................................ 245 easily.............................................................................. 208 How many magnesium anodes are needed for Avoid cavitation in butterfly values................................. 214 supplementary protection to a short-circuited bare casing?................................................................... 246 Group installation of sacrificial anodes........................... 246 How can the life of magnesium anodes be 8: Corrosion/Coatings, 219 predicted?...................................................................... 247 How to find the voltage rating of a rectifier if Hand-held computer determines concrete it is to deliver a given amount of current through coating thickness........................................................... 220 a given ground bed (graphite or carbon)................... 247 National Association of Pipe Coating Applications Determining current requirements for coated lines...... 247 (NAPCA) specifications................................................ 222 Determining current requirements for coated lines How much primer for a mile of pipe?........................... 225 when pipe-to-soil potential values are How much coal-tar enamel for a mile of pipe?............. 226 estimated....................................................................... 247 How much wrapping for a mile of pipe?....................... 226 HVDC effects on pipelines.............................................. 248 Estimating coating and wrapping materials required Troubleshooting cathodic protection systems: per mile of pipe............................................................ 226 Rectifier-ground bed.................................................... 252 Coefficient of friction for pipe coating How to control corrosion at compressor stations.......... 253 materials........................................................................ 227 Project leak growth........................................................... 254 Troubleshooting cathodic protection systems: Magnesium anode system............................................ 229 Advances in Pipeline Protection............. 255 Cathodic protection for pipelines.................................... 230 Methods of locating coating defects............................... 256 Estimate the pounds of sacrificial anode material Case histories.................................................................... 259 required for offshore pipelines.................................... 238 Estimate the number of squares of tape for Comparison of other reference electrode potentials pipe coating (machine applied)................................... 260 with that of copper–copper sulfate reference (cid:2) Estimate the amount of primer required for tape......... 261 electrode at 25 C.......................................................... 240 Tape requirements for fittings......................................... 261 Chart aids in calculating ground bed resistance and rectifier power cost............................................... 241 Induced AC Voltages on Pipelines How can output of magnesium anodes be predicted?...................................................................... 242 May Present a Serious Hazard............ 262 Contents ix Measuring Unwanted Alternating Estimate engine cooling water requirements................. 334 Current in Pipe.................................... 264 Estimate fuel requirements for internal combustion engines...................................................... 334 Minimizing shock hazards on pipelines Estimate fuel requirements for compressor near HVAC lines........................................................... 269 installation..................................................................... 335 Cathodic protection test point installations.................... 270 Performance testing guidelines for centrifugal compressors................................................................. 335 Corrosion of Low-Velocity, High Water Cut Oil Emulsion Pipelines................. 271 Internal Stray Current Interference 11: Gas—Hydraulics, 347 Form an External Current Source...... 275 Gas pipeline hydraulics calculations............................... 348 Equivalent lengths for multiple lines based on 9: Gas—General, 281 Panhandle A.................................................................. 349 Determine pressure loss for a low-pressure Know the gas laws............................................................ 282 gas system...................................................................... 350 Calculate gas properties from a gas analysis.................. 284 Nomograph for determining pipe-equivalent Physical properties of selected hydrocarbons and factors............................................................................ 351 other chemicals and gases........................................ 288 How much gas is contained in a given line section?..... 352 Nomograph for calculating density and specific How to estimate equivalent length factors for volume of gases and vapors..................................... 296 gas lines......................................................................... 352 Estimating comparative capacities of gas pipelines....... 353 Considerations for Selecting Energy Determination of leakage from gas line using Measurement Equipment....................... 297 pressure drop method.................................................. 353 Facts about methane and its behavior............................ 303 A quick way to determine the size of gas gathering Conversion table for pure methane................................ 307 lines................................................................................ 354 Categories of natural gas and reserves terminology...... 308 Energy conversion data for estimating........................... 354 Glossary of common gas industry terms......................... 309 How to estimate time required to get a shut-in test on gas transmission lines and approximate a maximum acceptable pressure loss for new lines...... 355 How to determine the relationship of capacity 10: Gas—Compression, 313 increase to investment increase................................... 355 Compressors...................................................................... 314 Estimate pipe size requirements for increasing Performance calculations for reciprocating throughput volumes of natural gas.............................. 356 compressors................................................................... 315 Calculate line loss using cross-sectional areas table Estimate suction and discharge volume bottle when testing mains with air or gas............................. 357 sizes for pulsation control for reciprocating Flow of fuel gases in pipelines........................................ 358 compressors................................................................... 317 Calculate the velocity of gas in a pipeline...................... 359 Compression horsepower determination........................ 319 Determining throat pressure in a blow-down Generalized compressibility factor.................................. 321 system............................................................................ 359 Nomograph aids in diagnosing compressor cylinder ills. 322 Estimate the amount of gas blown off through a line puncture.............................................................. 360 Centrifugal Compressor Data................. 323 A practical way to calculate gas flow for pipelines........ 360 Centrifugal compressor performance calculations......... 323 How to calculate the weight of gas in a pipeline.......... 361 Nomographs for estimating compressor performance... 327 Estimate average pressure in gas pipeline using Estimate hp required to compress natural gas.............. 332 upstream and downstream pressures.......................... 361 Estimate compressor hp where discharge pressure Chart for determining viscosity of natural gas............... 362 is 1,000 psi..................................................................... 332 Flow of gas........................................................................ 362 Calculate brake horsepower required to Multiphase flow................................................................ 366 compress gas................................................................. 333 Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for How to find the size of a fuel gas line for a compressible flow friction factor for clean compressor station........................................................ 333 steel and wrought iron pipe......................................... 371 x Contents 12: Liquids—General, 375 Calculate pressure and temperature loss for viscous crudes (cid:3)1,000cP............................................ 407 Determining the viscosity of crude................................. 376 Determine batch injection rate as per Chart gives API gravity of blends quickly...................... 377 enclosure........................................................................ 410 Liquid gravity and density conversion chart.................. 378 Nomograph for calculating viscosities of liquid Pressure Loss through Valves hydrocarbons at high pressure.................................... 378 and Fittings.......................................... 411 Calculate viscosity of a blend.......................................... 380 Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for Calculate specific gravity of a blend............................... 380 flow of liquids and friction factor for clean Convert viscosity units...................................................... 380 steel and wrought iron pipe......................................... 417 Convert specific gravity to API gravity and API Nomograph for calculating pressure drop of gravity to specific gravity.............................................. 380 liquids in lines for turbulent flow............................... 419 Calculate bulk modulus.................................................... 382 Drag-reducing agents....................................................... 423 Nomograph for calculating viscosity of slurries............. 382 How to estimate the rate of liquid discharge Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids from a pipe.................................................................... 426 in pipes.......................................................................... 384 Predict subsurface temperature ranges.......................... 426 Nomograph for calculating velocity of compressible Sizing pipelines for water flow........................................ 427 fluids in pipes................................................................ 384 How approximate throughput of a line can be Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in estimated from pipe size.............................................. 427 pipes............................................................................... 385 Gauge liquid flow where no weir or meter is Derivation of basic ultrasonic flow equations................ 387 available......................................................................... 428 How fast does oil move in a pipeline?............................ 389 Estimate crude gathering line throughput for a Estimate the volume of a pipeline per linear foot given pipe diameter...................................................... 428 using the inside diameter............................................. 389 How to determine head loss due to friction in What is the linefill of a given pipe in barrels ordinary iron pipeline carrying clear water................ 428 per mile?........................................................................ 389 How to size lines, estimate pressure drop, and Estimate leakage amount through small holes estimate optimum station spacing for in a pipeline.................................................................. 390 crude systems................................................................ 429 Table gives velocity heads for various pipe Estimate the optimum working pressures in crude diameters and different rates of discharge................. 391 oil transmission lines.................................................... 429 Viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids................................... 392 How to size crude oil and products lines for capacity increases.......................................................... 429 How to determine the maximum surge pressure in 13: Liquids—Hydraulics, 393 liquid-filled pipeline when a valve is suddenly closed............................................................................. 430 Marine Hose Data................................... 394 What is the hydrostatic pressure due to a column of liquid H feet in height?........................................... 430 CALM system................................................................... 394 Transient pressure analysis............................................... 430 SALM system.................................................................... 394 Tank farm line sizing........................................................ 440 Tandem system................................................................. 395 Hydraulics calculations for multiphase systems, Multi-point mooring system............................................. 395 including networks........................................................ 443 Pressure loss in hose string.............................................. 397 Pressure drop calculations for rubber hose.................... 399 Examples of pressure drop calculations for 14: Pumps, 451 rubber hose................................................................... 399 Typical formulas used for calculating pressure Centrifugal pumps............................................................ 452 drop and flow rates for pipelines................................ 399 Speed torque calculation.................................................. 464 Hydraulic gradients.......................................................... 401 Equivalent lengths............................................................ 404 Pulsation Control for Reciprocating Series systems................................................................... 405 Pumps................................................... 465 Looped systems................................................................. 406 Calculate pressure loss in annular sections.................... 407 Rotary pumps on pipeline services................................. 473 Contents xi Key Centrifugal Pump Parameters and Determine the number of purges for sample How They Impact Your cylinders......................................................................... 548 Find the British thermal units (Btu) when the Applications—Part 1............................ 478 specific gravity of a pipeline gas is known................. 548 Estimate for variations in measurement Key Centrifugal Pump Parameters factors............................................................................ 548 and How They Impact Your Rules of measurement of gas by orifice meter.............. 549 Applications—Part 2............................ 484 How to measure high pressure gas................................. 549 Four ways to calculate orifice flow in field.................... 553 Estimate the discharge of a centrifugal pump at Practical maintenance tips for positive various speeds............................................................... 488 displacement meters..................................................... 556 How to estimate the head for an average Sizing headers for meter stations.................................... 560 centrifugal pump........................................................... 489 Measuring flow of high-viscosity liquids......................... 563 Find the reciprocating pump capacity............................ 489 Matching the flowmeter to the application.................... 568 How to estimate the hp required to pump at a given Use liquid ultrasonic meters for custody rate at a desired discharge pressure........................... 489 transfer........................................................................... 575 Nomograph for determining reciprocating Handling entrained gas.................................................... 580 pump capacity............................................................... 490 Nomograph for determining specific speed of pumps.. 491 Nomograph for determining horsepower requirement of pumps.................................................. 492 16: Instrumentation, 583 How to select motors for field-gathering pumps........... 492 Reciprocating pumps........................................................ 493 Types of control systems.................................................. 584 Understanding the basics of rotary screw pumps.......... 502 How to evaluate VFD speed on hydraulics................... 508 Developments in Pipeline Progressive cavity pumps................................................. 510 Instrumentation................................... 586 Abstract.............................................................................. 586 Introduction...................................................................... 587 15: Measurement, 513 Flow measurements.......................................................... 587 Proving devices................................................................. 589 Multiphase flow meter..................................................... 514 Valves................................................................................. 590 Pipeline flow measurement—the new influences.......... 515 Acoustic line break detectors........................................... 591 Liquid measurement orifice plate flange taps................ 518 ‘‘Smart’’ pressure sensors ................................................ 592 Mass measurement light hydrocarbons.......................... 522 Densitometers................................................................... 593 Pipeline measurement of supercritical carbon Pipeline samplers.............................................................. 594 dioxide............................................................................ 523 Pipeline monitoring systems............................................ 595 Gas Measurement.................................... 529 Computer systems............................................................ 596 SCADA systems ............................................................... 598 Master meter proving orifice meters in dense Cathodic protection.......................................................... 598 phase ethylene.............................................................. 529 System design guidelines................................................. 598 Gas or vapor flow measurement—orifice plate Future trends.................................................................... 599 flange taps..................................................................... 536 Conclusion......................................................................... 599 Properties of gas and vapors............................................ 540 Determine required orifice diameter for any Choosing the Right Technology for required differential when the present orifice Integrated SCADA Communications.. 600 and differential are known in gas measurement........ 545 Estimate the temperature drop across a regulator........ 546 WAC methodology............................................................ 600 Estimate natural gas flow rates....................................... 546 Analysis of technology...................................................... 601 How to estimate the average pressure differential on C-band VSATadvantages................................................. 602 the remaining meter runs of a parallel system C-band VSAT disadvantages............................................ 602 when one or more runs are shut off........................... 547 Ku-band advantages......................................................... 602 Sizing a gas metering run................................................ 547 Ku-band disadvantages..................................................... 602 List of typical specifications for domestic and VSAT decisions.................................................................. 602 commercial natural gas................................................. 547 Implementation................................................................. 603 xii Contents 17: Leak Detection, 605 20: Economics, 635 Pipeline leak detection techniques.................................. 606 Rule of thumb speeds payroll estimates......................... 636 Summary........................................................................... 606 Rule of thumb estimates optimum time to keep Introduction....................................................................... 606 construction equipment................................................ 637 Causes and economic aspects of leaks............................. 606 How to estimate construction costs................................ 639 Simple leak detection systems.......................................... 607 Cost estimating strategies for pipelines, Pig-based monitoring systems.......................................... 608 stations, and terminals (part 1).................................... 642 Computer-based monitoring systems............................... 608 Cost estimating strategies for pipelines, Pipeline leak phenomena.................................................. 609 stations, and terminals (part 2).................................... 645 Background philosophy of pipeline modeling................ 609 Economics ........................................................................ 650 Basic pipeline modeling equations.................................. 610 Time Value of Money: Concepts Impact of instrument accuracy........................................ 611 System design aspects and guidelines............................. 612 and Formulas ...................................... 654 Development of pipeline monitoring systems................. 613 Simple interest versus compound interest .................... 654 Conclusion......................................................................... 614 Nominal interest rate versus effective annual interest rate................................................................... 655 Present value of a single cash flow to be received in the future.................................................................. 655 18: Tanks, 615 Future value of a single investment................................ 656 The importance of cash flow diagrams........................... 656 Charts give vapor loss from internal Analyzing and valuing investments/projects with floating-roof tanks......................................................... 616 multiple or irregular cash flows................................... 656 Estimating the contents of horizontal Perpetuities....................................................................... 657 cylindrical tanks............................................................ 618 Future value of a periodic series of investments........... 658 How to gauge a horizontal cylindrical tank.................... 619 Annuities, loans, and leases............................................. 658 Use nomograph to find tank capacity............................. 619 Gradients (payouts/payments with constant Correct the volume of light fuels from actual (cid:2) growth rates) ................................................................ 659 temperature to a base of 60 F.................................... 621 Analyzing complex investments and cash flow Volume of liquid in vertical cylindrical tanks................. 621 problems........................................................................ 660 Chart gives tank’s vapor formation rate.......................... 621 Hand-held calculator program simplifies dike Decision and Evaluation Criteria for computations................................................................. 622 Investments and Financial Projects.... 661 Payback method................................................................ 661 Accounting rate of return (ROR) method...................... 662 19: Maintenance, 627 Internal rate of return (IRR) method............................. 663 Net present value (NPV) method................................... 664 How to plan for oil pipeline spills (part 1).................... 628 Regulatory requirements.................................................. 628 Sensitivity Analysis................................... 665 Contingency plan objectives............................................. 628 Related studies.................................................................. 628 Decision Tree Analysis of Investments Planning concepts............................................................. 629 and Financial Projects......................... 666 Contingency response....................................................... 630 How to plan for oil pipeline spills (part 2).................... 631 Accounting Fundamentals....................... 670 Immediate response.......................................................... 631 Immediate response actions............................................. 632 Estimate the cost of a pipeline in the United States Flexible response actions.................................................. 632 (based on 1994 data).................................................... 674 Training............................................................................. 633 How to compare the cost of operating an engine Conclusion......................................................................... 634 on diesel and natural gas............................................. 675

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Now in its Seventh Edition, Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook continues to set the standard by which all others are judged. Since the Sixth Edition, this edition features over 30% new and updated sections, reflecting the exponential changes in the codes, construction and equipment. The Seventh Editio
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Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook - Quick and Accurate Solutions to Your Everyday Pipeline Engineering Problems PDF

725 Pages·2009·19.24 MB·English
by  McAllister
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S E V E N T H E D I T I O N P I P E L I N E RULES THUMB OF H A N D B O O K Quick and accurate solutions to your everyday pipeline problems E.W. McAllister, Editor AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO ELSEVIER Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier. 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK Copyright (cid:1) 2009 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: (þ44) 1865 843830, fax: (þ44) 1865 853333, e-mail: [email protected]. You may also complete your request on-line via the ElsevierSciencehomepage(http://www.elsevier.com),byselecting‘‘CustomerSupport’’ and then ‘‘Obtaining Permissions.’’ Recognizing the importance of preserving what has beenwritten, Elsevier prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Application submitted British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-1-85617-500-5 For information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications Visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com 09 10 11 12 13 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America Contents 1: General Information, 1 Belts and Shafts......................................... 14 Determine length of a V-belt............................................. 14 Basic formulas....................................................................... 2 Calculate stress in shaft key............................................... 15 Mathematics—areas.............................................................. 3 Calculate V-belt length using simple equation................. 15 Mathematics—surfaces and volumes.................................. 4 Estimate the horsepower that can be Rules of exponents................................................................ 5 transmitted by a shaft..................................................... 16 Recommended drill sizes for self-tapping screws.............. 5 Determine pulley speed....................................................... 5 Miscellaneous............................................. 16 Calculate volume in horizontal storage tank with ellipsoidal or hemispherical heads.................................. 6 How to estimate length of material contained ASTM standard reinforcing bars......................................... 7 in roll............................................................................... 16 Pressure rating for carbon steel flanges............................. 7 Convenient antifreeze chart for winterizing cooling systems................................................................ 16 Cables and Ropes........................................ 8 How to determine glycol requirements to bring a Estimating strength of cable................................................ 8 system to a desired temperature protection level........ 17 Find the working strength of Manila rope......................... 8 Weight in pounds of round steel shafting........................ 17 How large should drums and sheaves be for various Properties of shafting......................................................... 18 types of wire rope?........................................................... 8 Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws.......... 19 Find advantages of block and tackle, taking into Common nails..................................................................... 20 account pull out friction................................................... 9 Drill sizes for pipe taps...................................................... 20 Safe loads for wire rope....................................................... 9 Carbon steel—color and approximate temperature.......... 20 Stress in guy wires.............................................................. 10 Bolting dimensions for flanges.......................................... 21 Strength and weight of popular wire rope....................... 12 Steel fitting dimensions...................................................... 22 Measuring the diameter of wire rope............................... 12 ANSI forged steel flanges.................................................. 23 Wire rope: field troubles and their causes....................... 12 Trench shoring—minimum requirements......................... 24 Capacity of drums............................................................... 14 Reuniting separated mercury in thermometers............... 25 v vi Contents Typical wire resistance....................................................... 25 Pipe Laying................................................ 47 How to cut odd-angle long radius elbows........................ 26 How to determine the degrees of bend in a pipe How to read land descriptions.......................................... 27 that must fit a ditch calling for a bend in both Sample sections showing rectangular land descriptions, horizontal and vertical planes........................................ 47 acreages, and distances.................................................. 28 How to bend pipe to fit ditch—sags, overbends, and Size an air receiver for engine starting............................. 29 combination bends.......................................................... 47 Dimensions of hex nuts and hex jam nuts....................... 30 Pipe bending computations made with Color codes for locating underground utilities ............... 31 hand-held calculator....................................................... 48 Approximate angle of repose for sloping Calculate maximum bend on cold pipe............................ 52 sides of excavations......................................................... 31 Determine length of a pipe bend..................................... 53 Wind chill chart.................................................................. 32 Length of pipe in arc subtended by any angle................ 53 Pipeline Pigging......................................... 33 Average pipelay table—underground................................ 54 Average pipelay table—on supports.................................. 55 Sizing plates........................................................................ 33 Allowable pipe span between supports............................. 55 Caliper pigging.................................................................... 33 How engineers make pipe fit the ditch............................ 56 Cleaning after construction................................................ 33 Flooding for hydrotest........................................................ 34 Pipe Lowering........................................... 59 Dewatering and drying....................................................... 34 How to lower an existing pipeline that is still Estimate volume of onshore oil spill................................ 34 in service.......................................................................... 59 Estimating spill volume on water...................................... 36 Fluid Power Formulas....................................................... 37 Welding...................................................... 62 When should steel be preheated before welding?........................................................................... 62 2: Construction, 39 Welding and brazing temperatures................................... 63 Mechanical properties of pipe welding rods.................... 63 Project Scoping Data................................. 40 Lens shade selector............................................................. 64 Project scoping data worksheet for major Pipeline Welding ....................................... 64 facilities............................................................................ 40 How many welds will the average welder make Right-of-Way.............................................. 42 per hour?......................................................................... 73 How to determine the crop acreage included in a How much welding rod is required for a mile right-of-way strip............................................................. 42 of schedule 40 pipeline?................................................ 73 Clearing and grading right-of-way: labor/equipment How many pounds of electrodes are required considerations.................................................................. 43 per weld on line pipe?................................................... 73 Estimating manhours for removing trees......................... 43 Welding criteria permit safe and effective Estimating manhours for removing tree stumps.............. 44 pipeline repair................................................................. 74 Clearing and grading right-of-way..................................... 44 Cross country pipeline—vertical down electrode consumption, pounds of electrode per joint................ 80 Ditching..................................................... 45 Guidelines for a successful directional crossing bid package...................................................................... 81 How many cubic yards of excavation in a mile of ditch?.................................................................. 45 Shrinkage and expansion of excavated and compacted soil................................................................ 45 3: Pipe Design, 89 Ditching and trenching: labor/equipment considerations.................................................................. 45 Steel pipe design................................................................. 90 Properties of pipe............................................................... 95 Concrete Work .......................................... 46 Length of pipe in bends..................................................... 98 How to approximate sacks of cement Calculation of pipe bends.................................................. 99 needed to fill a form....................................................... 46 Spacing of pipe supports.................................................. 101 What you should know about mixing and American standard taper pipe threads (NPT)................ 103 finishing concrete............................................................ 46 British standard taper pipe threads................................ 104 Contents vii Normal engagement between male and female What you should remember about electrical threads to make tight joints......................................... 105 formulas......................................................................... 136 Hand-held computer calculates pipe weight, How to calculate microwave hops on level ground....... 136 contents, velocity........................................................... 105 For quick determination of the horsepower per Formulas and constants of value in solving problems ampere for induction motors (3 phase) at relating to tubular goods.............................................. 108 different voltages........................................................... 137 How to calculate the contraction or expansion Chart of electric motor horsepower for of a pipeline.................................................................. 109 pumping units............................................................... 137 Estimate weight of pipe in metric tons per kilometer.. 109 Pumping stations............................................................... 138 How to find pipe weight from outside diameter and Floodlighting Concepts........................... 139 wall thickness................................................................ 110 What is the maximum allowable length of Terms................................................................................. 139 unsupported line pipe?................................................ 110 Floodlighting calculations................................................ 139 Identify the schedule number of pipe by direct Point-by-point method..................................................... 139 measurement................................................................. 110 Beam-lumen method........................................................ 140 Determine buoyancy of bare steel pipe......................... 111 Design procedure............................................................. 140 Determine buoyancy of bare and concrete-coated Conductor size conversion chart—Metric to AWG....... 141 steel pipe in water and mud........................................ 111 Commonly used switchgear device numbers................. 142 Weights of piping materials............................................. 112 Bonding the grounding system to building and Allowable working pressure for carbon steel pipe......... 112 structure foundations.................................................... 143 Find the stress in pipe wall due to internal pressure... 113 How to calculate stress in aboveground/belowground transitions...................................................................... 114 5: Hydrostatic Testing, 145 How to identify the series number of flanged fittings.. 117 Dimensions of three-diameter ells with tangents.......... 117 The Benefits and Limitations of Spectacle blind thicknesses.............................................. 117 Hydrostatic Testing.............................. 146 Polypipe design data......................................................... 118 Hydrostatic testing for pipelines..................................... 157 Appendix A............................................... 163 4: Electrical Design, 121 Volume of water required to fill test section................. 163 Volume required at test pressure.................................... 164 Electrical design............................................................... 122 Hazardous locations.......................................................... 123 Appendix B.............................................. 165 NEMA enclosure types.................................................... 124 How to use charts for estimating the amount Size portable electric generators..................................... 125 of pressure change for a change in test Typical wattages for tools and appliances....................... 126 water temperature........................................................ 165 Knockout dimensions....................................................... 126 Basis for chart development............................................ 168 National Electrical Code tables....................................... 127 Compressibility factor for water...................................... 168 Electrical formulas............................................................ 131 Hydrostatic test records................................................... 168 Full load currents—single phase transformers.............. 131 Conduit size for combinations of cables with different outside diameters.......................................... 132 Minimum bending radius for insulated cables for 6: Pipeline Drying, 169 permanent training during installation....................... 132 Full load currents—three phase transformers............... 134 Pipeline Dewatering, Cleaning, Motor controller sizes....................................................... 134 and Drying........................................... 170 Voltage drop on circuits using 600V copper conductors in steel conduit.......................................... 135 Dewatering........................................................................ 170 Determine the most economical size for Cleaning pipelines............................................................ 171 electric power conductors............................................ 135 Brush pig run with gas..................................................... 171 How to find the resistance and weight of Brush pig run with liquid................................................ 171 copper wires.................................................................. 136 Internal sand blasting....................................................... 171 viii Contents Chemical cleaning............................................................. 172 How to determine the efficiency of a cathodic Pipeline drying.................................................................. 172 protection rectifier........................................................ 242 Moisture content of air.................................................... 174 How to calculate the voltage drop in ground Commissioning petrochemical pipelines......................... 176 bed cable quickly.......................................................... 243 Vacuum drying.................................................................. 179 What is the most economical size for a rectifier cable?............................................................................. 243 How to estimate the number of magnesium 7: Control Valves, 183 anodes required and their spacing for a bare line or for a corrosion ‘‘hot spot’’................................ 244 Control valve sizing formulas........................................... 184 How can resistivity of fresh water be Sizing control valves for throughput............................... 188 determined from chemical analysis?........................... 244 Control valve selection..................................................... 193 What will be the resistance to earth of a Relief Valve Sizing, Selection, single graphite anode?.................................................. 245 How to estimate the monthly power bill for a Installation, and Testing...................... 195 cathodic protection rectifier......................................... 245 Rupture disc sizing........................................................... 199 What will be the resistance to earth of a group of Rupture disc sizing using the resistance to graphite anodes, in terms of the resistance flow method (K )......................................................... 200 of a single anode?......................................................... 245 R Variable orifice rotary control valves............................... 202 How can the current output of magnesium rod used for the cathodic protection of heat exchanger Sizing Valves for Gas and Vapor............. 204 shells be predicted?...................................................... 245 Basic valve flow-capacity coefficient (C )...................... 204 What spacing for test leads to measure current V Visualize pump and control valve interaction on a pipeline?................................................................ 245 easily.............................................................................. 208 How many magnesium anodes are needed for Avoid cavitation in butterfly values................................. 214 supplementary protection to a short-circuited bare casing?................................................................... 246 Group installation of sacrificial anodes........................... 246 How can the life of magnesium anodes be 8: Corrosion/Coatings, 219 predicted?...................................................................... 247 How to find the voltage rating of a rectifier if Hand-held computer determines concrete it is to deliver a given amount of current through coating thickness........................................................... 220 a given ground bed (graphite or carbon)................... 247 National Association of Pipe Coating Applications Determining current requirements for coated lines...... 247 (NAPCA) specifications................................................ 222 Determining current requirements for coated lines How much primer for a mile of pipe?........................... 225 when pipe-to-soil potential values are How much coal-tar enamel for a mile of pipe?............. 226 estimated....................................................................... 247 How much wrapping for a mile of pipe?....................... 226 HVDC effects on pipelines.............................................. 248 Estimating coating and wrapping materials required Troubleshooting cathodic protection systems: per mile of pipe............................................................ 226 Rectifier-ground bed.................................................... 252 Coefficient of friction for pipe coating How to control corrosion at compressor stations.......... 253 materials........................................................................ 227 Project leak growth........................................................... 254 Troubleshooting cathodic protection systems: Magnesium anode system............................................ 229 Advances in Pipeline Protection............. 255 Cathodic protection for pipelines.................................... 230 Methods of locating coating defects............................... 256 Estimate the pounds of sacrificial anode material Case histories.................................................................... 259 required for offshore pipelines.................................... 238 Estimate the number of squares of tape for Comparison of other reference electrode potentials pipe coating (machine applied)................................... 260 with that of copper–copper sulfate reference (cid:2) Estimate the amount of primer required for tape......... 261 electrode at 25 C.......................................................... 240 Tape requirements for fittings......................................... 261 Chart aids in calculating ground bed resistance and rectifier power cost............................................... 241 Induced AC Voltages on Pipelines How can output of magnesium anodes be predicted?...................................................................... 242 May Present a Serious Hazard............ 262 Contents ix Measuring Unwanted Alternating Estimate engine cooling water requirements................. 334 Current in Pipe.................................... 264 Estimate fuel requirements for internal combustion engines...................................................... 334 Minimizing shock hazards on pipelines Estimate fuel requirements for compressor near HVAC lines........................................................... 269 installation..................................................................... 335 Cathodic protection test point installations.................... 270 Performance testing guidelines for centrifugal compressors................................................................. 335 Corrosion of Low-Velocity, High Water Cut Oil Emulsion Pipelines................. 271 Internal Stray Current Interference 11: Gas—Hydraulics, 347 Form an External Current Source...... 275 Gas pipeline hydraulics calculations............................... 348 Equivalent lengths for multiple lines based on 9: Gas—General, 281 Panhandle A.................................................................. 349 Determine pressure loss for a low-pressure Know the gas laws............................................................ 282 gas system...................................................................... 350 Calculate gas properties from a gas analysis.................. 284 Nomograph for determining pipe-equivalent Physical properties of selected hydrocarbons and factors............................................................................ 351 other chemicals and gases........................................ 288 How much gas is contained in a given line section?..... 352 Nomograph for calculating density and specific How to estimate equivalent length factors for volume of gases and vapors..................................... 296 gas lines......................................................................... 352 Estimating comparative capacities of gas pipelines....... 353 Considerations for Selecting Energy Determination of leakage from gas line using Measurement Equipment....................... 297 pressure drop method.................................................. 353 Facts about methane and its behavior............................ 303 A quick way to determine the size of gas gathering Conversion table for pure methane................................ 307 lines................................................................................ 354 Categories of natural gas and reserves terminology...... 308 Energy conversion data for estimating........................... 354 Glossary of common gas industry terms......................... 309 How to estimate time required to get a shut-in test on gas transmission lines and approximate a maximum acceptable pressure loss for new lines...... 355 How to determine the relationship of capacity 10: Gas—Compression, 313 increase to investment increase................................... 355 Compressors...................................................................... 314 Estimate pipe size requirements for increasing Performance calculations for reciprocating throughput volumes of natural gas.............................. 356 compressors................................................................... 315 Calculate line loss using cross-sectional areas table Estimate suction and discharge volume bottle when testing mains with air or gas............................. 357 sizes for pulsation control for reciprocating Flow of fuel gases in pipelines........................................ 358 compressors................................................................... 317 Calculate the velocity of gas in a pipeline...................... 359 Compression horsepower determination........................ 319 Determining throat pressure in a blow-down Generalized compressibility factor.................................. 321 system............................................................................ 359 Nomograph aids in diagnosing compressor cylinder ills. 322 Estimate the amount of gas blown off through a line puncture.............................................................. 360 Centrifugal Compressor Data................. 323 A practical way to calculate gas flow for pipelines........ 360 Centrifugal compressor performance calculations......... 323 How to calculate the weight of gas in a pipeline.......... 361 Nomographs for estimating compressor performance... 327 Estimate average pressure in gas pipeline using Estimate hp required to compress natural gas.............. 332 upstream and downstream pressures.......................... 361 Estimate compressor hp where discharge pressure Chart for determining viscosity of natural gas............... 362 is 1,000 psi..................................................................... 332 Flow of gas........................................................................ 362 Calculate brake horsepower required to Multiphase flow................................................................ 366 compress gas................................................................. 333 Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for How to find the size of a fuel gas line for a compressible flow friction factor for clean compressor station........................................................ 333 steel and wrought iron pipe......................................... 371 x Contents 12: Liquids—General, 375 Calculate pressure and temperature loss for viscous crudes (cid:3)1,000cP............................................ 407 Determining the viscosity of crude................................. 376 Determine batch injection rate as per Chart gives API gravity of blends quickly...................... 377 enclosure........................................................................ 410 Liquid gravity and density conversion chart.................. 378 Nomograph for calculating viscosities of liquid Pressure Loss through Valves hydrocarbons at high pressure.................................... 378 and Fittings.......................................... 411 Calculate viscosity of a blend.......................................... 380 Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for Calculate specific gravity of a blend............................... 380 flow of liquids and friction factor for clean Convert viscosity units...................................................... 380 steel and wrought iron pipe......................................... 417 Convert specific gravity to API gravity and API Nomograph for calculating pressure drop of gravity to specific gravity.............................................. 380 liquids in lines for turbulent flow............................... 419 Calculate bulk modulus.................................................... 382 Drag-reducing agents....................................................... 423 Nomograph for calculating viscosity of slurries............. 382 How to estimate the rate of liquid discharge Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids from a pipe.................................................................... 426 in pipes.......................................................................... 384 Predict subsurface temperature ranges.......................... 426 Nomograph for calculating velocity of compressible Sizing pipelines for water flow........................................ 427 fluids in pipes................................................................ 384 How approximate throughput of a line can be Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in estimated from pipe size.............................................. 427 pipes............................................................................... 385 Gauge liquid flow where no weir or meter is Derivation of basic ultrasonic flow equations................ 387 available......................................................................... 428 How fast does oil move in a pipeline?............................ 389 Estimate crude gathering line throughput for a Estimate the volume of a pipeline per linear foot given pipe diameter...................................................... 428 using the inside diameter............................................. 389 How to determine head loss due to friction in What is the linefill of a given pipe in barrels ordinary iron pipeline carrying clear water................ 428 per mile?........................................................................ 389 How to size lines, estimate pressure drop, and Estimate leakage amount through small holes estimate optimum station spacing for in a pipeline.................................................................. 390 crude systems................................................................ 429 Table gives velocity heads for various pipe Estimate the optimum working pressures in crude diameters and different rates of discharge................. 391 oil transmission lines.................................................... 429 Viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids................................... 392 How to size crude oil and products lines for capacity increases.......................................................... 429 How to determine the maximum surge pressure in 13: Liquids—Hydraulics, 393 liquid-filled pipeline when a valve is suddenly closed............................................................................. 430 Marine Hose Data................................... 394 What is the hydrostatic pressure due to a column of liquid H feet in height?........................................... 430 CALM system................................................................... 394 Transient pressure analysis............................................... 430 SALM system.................................................................... 394 Tank farm line sizing........................................................ 440 Tandem system................................................................. 395 Hydraulics calculations for multiphase systems, Multi-point mooring system............................................. 395 including networks........................................................ 443 Pressure loss in hose string.............................................. 397 Pressure drop calculations for rubber hose.................... 399 Examples of pressure drop calculations for 14: Pumps, 451 rubber hose................................................................... 399 Typical formulas used for calculating pressure Centrifugal pumps............................................................ 452 drop and flow rates for pipelines................................ 399 Speed torque calculation.................................................. 464 Hydraulic gradients.......................................................... 401 Equivalent lengths............................................................ 404 Pulsation Control for Reciprocating Series systems................................................................... 405 Pumps................................................... 465 Looped systems................................................................. 406 Calculate pressure loss in annular sections.................... 407 Rotary pumps on pipeline services................................. 473 Contents xi Key Centrifugal Pump Parameters and Determine the number of purges for sample How They Impact Your cylinders......................................................................... 548 Find the British thermal units (Btu) when the Applications—Part 1............................ 478 specific gravity of a pipeline gas is known................. 548 Estimate for variations in measurement Key Centrifugal Pump Parameters factors............................................................................ 548 and How They Impact Your Rules of measurement of gas by orifice meter.............. 549 Applications—Part 2............................ 484 How to measure high pressure gas................................. 549 Four ways to calculate orifice flow in field.................... 553 Estimate the discharge of a centrifugal pump at Practical maintenance tips for positive various speeds............................................................... 488 displacement meters..................................................... 556 How to estimate the head for an average Sizing headers for meter stations.................................... 560 centrifugal pump........................................................... 489 Measuring flow of high-viscosity liquids......................... 563 Find the reciprocating pump capacity............................ 489 Matching the flowmeter to the application.................... 568 How to estimate the hp required to pump at a given Use liquid ultrasonic meters for custody rate at a desired discharge pressure........................... 489 transfer........................................................................... 575 Nomograph for determining reciprocating Handling entrained gas.................................................... 580 pump capacity............................................................... 490 Nomograph for determining specific speed of pumps.. 491 Nomograph for determining horsepower requirement of pumps.................................................. 492 16: Instrumentation, 583 How to select motors for field-gathering pumps........... 492 Reciprocating pumps........................................................ 493 Types of control systems.................................................. 584 Understanding the basics of rotary screw pumps.......... 502 How to evaluate VFD speed on hydraulics................... 508 Developments in Pipeline Progressive cavity pumps................................................. 510 Instrumentation................................... 586 Abstract.............................................................................. 586 Introduction...................................................................... 587 15: Measurement, 513 Flow measurements.......................................................... 587 Proving devices................................................................. 589 Multiphase flow meter..................................................... 514 Valves................................................................................. 590 Pipeline flow measurement—the new influences.......... 515 Acoustic line break detectors........................................... 591 Liquid measurement orifice plate flange taps................ 518 ‘‘Smart’’ pressure sensors ................................................ 592 Mass measurement light hydrocarbons.......................... 522 Densitometers................................................................... 593 Pipeline measurement of supercritical carbon Pipeline samplers.............................................................. 594 dioxide............................................................................ 523 Pipeline monitoring systems............................................ 595 Gas Measurement.................................... 529 Computer systems............................................................ 596 SCADA systems ............................................................... 598 Master meter proving orifice meters in dense Cathodic protection.......................................................... 598 phase ethylene.............................................................. 529 System design guidelines................................................. 598 Gas or vapor flow measurement—orifice plate Future trends.................................................................... 599 flange taps..................................................................... 536 Conclusion......................................................................... 599 Properties of gas and vapors............................................ 540 Determine required orifice diameter for any Choosing the Right Technology for required differential when the present orifice Integrated SCADA Communications.. 600 and differential are known in gas measurement........ 545 Estimate the temperature drop across a regulator........ 546 WAC methodology............................................................ 600 Estimate natural gas flow rates....................................... 546 Analysis of technology...................................................... 601 How to estimate the average pressure differential on C-band VSATadvantages................................................. 602 the remaining meter runs of a parallel system C-band VSAT disadvantages............................................ 602 when one or more runs are shut off........................... 547 Ku-band advantages......................................................... 602 Sizing a gas metering run................................................ 547 Ku-band disadvantages..................................................... 602 List of typical specifications for domestic and VSAT decisions.................................................................. 602 commercial natural gas................................................. 547 Implementation................................................................. 603 xii Contents 17: Leak Detection, 605 20: Economics, 635 Pipeline leak detection techniques.................................. 606 Rule of thumb speeds payroll estimates......................... 636 Summary........................................................................... 606 Rule of thumb estimates optimum time to keep Introduction....................................................................... 606 construction equipment................................................ 637 Causes and economic aspects of leaks............................. 606 How to estimate construction costs................................ 639 Simple leak detection systems.......................................... 607 Cost estimating strategies for pipelines, Pig-based monitoring systems.......................................... 608 stations, and terminals (part 1).................................... 642 Computer-based monitoring systems............................... 608 Cost estimating strategies for pipelines, Pipeline leak phenomena.................................................. 609 stations, and terminals (part 2).................................... 645 Background philosophy of pipeline modeling................ 609 Economics ........................................................................ 650 Basic pipeline modeling equations.................................. 610 Time Value of Money: Concepts Impact of instrument accuracy........................................ 611 System design aspects and guidelines............................. 612 and Formulas ...................................... 654 Development of pipeline monitoring systems................. 613 Simple interest versus compound interest .................... 654 Conclusion......................................................................... 614 Nominal interest rate versus effective annual interest rate................................................................... 655 Present value of a single cash flow to be received in the future.................................................................. 655 18: Tanks, 615 Future value of a single investment................................ 656 The importance of cash flow diagrams........................... 656 Charts give vapor loss from internal Analyzing and valuing investments/projects with floating-roof tanks......................................................... 616 multiple or irregular cash flows................................... 656 Estimating the contents of horizontal Perpetuities....................................................................... 657 cylindrical tanks............................................................ 618 Future value of a periodic series of investments........... 658 How to gauge a horizontal cylindrical tank.................... 619 Annuities, loans, and leases............................................. 658 Use nomograph to find tank capacity............................. 619 Gradients (payouts/payments with constant Correct the volume of light fuels from actual (cid:2) growth rates) ................................................................ 659 temperature to a base of 60 F.................................... 621 Analyzing complex investments and cash flow Volume of liquid in vertical cylindrical tanks................. 621 problems........................................................................ 660 Chart gives tank’s vapor formation rate.......................... 621 Hand-held calculator program simplifies dike Decision and Evaluation Criteria for computations................................................................. 622 Investments and Financial Projects.... 661 Payback method................................................................ 661 Accounting rate of return (ROR) method...................... 662 19: Maintenance, 627 Internal rate of return (IRR) method............................. 663 Net present value (NPV) method................................... 664 How to plan for oil pipeline spills (part 1).................... 628 Regulatory requirements.................................................. 628 Sensitivity Analysis................................... 665 Contingency plan objectives............................................. 628 Related studies.................................................................. 628 Decision Tree Analysis of Investments Planning concepts............................................................. 629 and Financial Projects......................... 666 Contingency response....................................................... 630 How to plan for oil pipeline spills (part 2).................... 631 Accounting Fundamentals....................... 670 Immediate response.......................................................... 631 Immediate response actions............................................. 632 Estimate the cost of a pipeline in the United States Flexible response actions.................................................. 632 (based on 1994 data).................................................... 674 Training............................................................................. 633 How to compare the cost of operating an engine Conclusion......................................................................... 634 on diesel and natural gas............................................. 675

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Now in its Seventh Edition, Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook continues to set the standard by which all others are judged. Since the Sixth Edition, this edition features over 30% new and updated sections, reflecting the exponential changes in the codes, construction and equipment. The Seventh Editio
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