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Physics of the Solar Corona: An Introduction with Problems and Solutions PDF

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Physics of the Solar Corona AnIntroductionwithProblemsandSolutions Markus J Aschwanden Physics of the Solar Corona An Introduction with Problems and Solutions Published inassociationwith PPrraaxxiiss PPuubblliisshhiinngg Chichester, UK Dr Markus J Aschwanden Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory Palo Alto California USA SPRINGER–PRAXIS BOOKS IN ASTRONOMY AND PLANETARY SCIENCES SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITOR: Dr. Philippe Blondel, C.Geol., F.G.S., Ph.D., M.Sc., Senior Scientist, DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofBath,Bath,UK;JohnMasonB.Sc.,M.Sc.,Ph.D. ISBN 3-540-30765-6 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Springer is part of Springer-Science+Business Media (springeronline.com) Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available from the Internet at http://dnb.ddb.de Library of Congress Control Number: 2005937065 Apartfrom any fair dealing for the purposes of research orprivate study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. # Praxis Publishing Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2005 Printed in Germany Reprinted with corrections, problems and solutions and issued in paperback 2006 The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such namesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefree for general use. Cover design: Jim Wilkie Completed in LaTex: EDV-Beratung, Germany Printed on acid-free paper To Susanna Contents Preface xix Prefaceto2ndEdition xxii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 HistoryofSolarCoronaObservations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 NomenclatureofCoronalPhenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3 TheSolarMagneticCycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.4 MagneticFieldoftheSolarCorona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 1.5 GeometricConceptsoftheSolarCorona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.6 DensityStructureoftheSolarCorona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.7 TemperatureStructureoftheSolarCorona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.8 Plasma-βParameteroftheSolarCorona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.9 ChemicalCompositionoftheSolarCorona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 1.10 RadiationSpectrumoftheSolarCorona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 1.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2 ThermalRadiation 37 2.1 RadiationTransferandObservedBrightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.2 Black-BodyThermalEmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.3 ThermalBremsstrahlung(Free−FreeEmission) . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.4 AtomicEnergyLevels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.5 AtomicTransitionProbabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 2.6 IonizationandRecombinationProcesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2.7 IonizationEquilibriumandSahaEquation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 2.8 EmissionLineSpectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2.9 RadiativeLossFunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 2.10 FirstIonizationPotential(FIP)Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3 Hydrostatics 67 3.1 HydrostaticScaleHeight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.2 HydrostaticWeightingBias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.3 Multi-HydrostaticCorona. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 viii CONTENTS 3.4 LoopGeometryandInclination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.4.1 VerticalSemi-CircularLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.4.2 InclinedSemi-CircularLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 3.4.3 DivergingSemi-CircularLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 3.4.4 CoordinateTransformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Image(orObserver’s)CoordinateSystem . . . . . . . . . . . 87 HeliographicCoordinateSystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 LoopPlaneCoordinateSystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 ColumnDepthofLoopswithConstantCrossSection . . . . . 89 3.5 LoopLine-of-SightIntegration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.5.1 BrightSingleLoop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 3.5.2 FaintSingleLoop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 3.5.3 StatisticalDistributionofLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 3.6 HydrostaticSolutionsandScalingLaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 3.6.1 UniformHeatingandRTVScalingLaws . . . . . . . . . . . 94 3.6.2 NonuniformHeatingandGravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 3.6.3 AnalyticalApproximationsofHydrostaticSolutions . . . . . 96 3.7 HeatingFunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 3.8 InstrumentalResponseFunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 3.9 ObservationsofHydrostaticLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 3.10 HydrostaticDEMDistributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 3.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 4 Hydrodynamics 117 4.1 HydrodynamicEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 4.2 Steady-FlowandSiphon-FlowSolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 4.3 ThermalStabilityofLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 4.3.1 RadiativeLossInstability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 4.3.2 HeatingScaleInstability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 4.4 ObservationsofFlowsinCoronalLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 4.5 ObservationsofCoolingLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 4.5.1 CoolingDelays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 4.5.2 IronAbundanceandFillingFactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 4.5.3 ScalingLawofCoolingLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 4.5.4 CatastrophicCoolingPhase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 4.6 ObservationsofNon-HydrostaticLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 4.6.1 TRACEObservations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 4.6.2 TheoreticalModels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 4.7 HydrodynamicNumericalSimulationsofLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 4.8 HydrodynamicsoftheTransitionRegion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 4.9 HydrodynamicsofCoronalHoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 4.10 HydrodynamicsoftheSolarWind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 4.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 CONTENTS ix 5 MagneticFields 175 5.1 ElectromagneticEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 5.1.1 Maxwell’sEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 5.1.2 Ampe`re’sLaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 5.1.3 Ohm’sLaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 5.1.4 InductionEquation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 5.2 PotentialFields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 5.2.1 UnipolarField . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 5.2.2 DipoleField . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 5.2.3 Potential-FieldCalculationMethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Green’sFunctionMethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 EigenfunctionExpansionMethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 5.3 Force-FreeFields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 5.3.1 LinearForce-FreeFields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 5.3.2 ShearedArcade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 5.3.3 NonlinearForce-FreeFieldCalculationMethods . . . . . . . 190 TheVerticalIntegrationMethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 TheBoundaryIntegralMethod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 TheEulerPotentialMethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 FullMHDMethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 PotentialVectorGrad−RubinMethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 EvolutionaryMethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 5.4 MagneticFieldinActiveRegionCorona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 5.4.1 3DStereoscopyofActiveRegionLoops. . . . . . . . . . . . 196 5.4.2 Alfve´nVelocityinActiveRegions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 5.4.3 Non-PotentialityofSoftX-RayLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 5.4.4 TheWidthVariationofCoronalLoops. . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 5.5 MagneticHelicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 5.5.1 UniformlyTwistedCylindricalForce-FreeFluxtubes . . . . . 215 5.5.2 ObservationsofSigmoidLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 5.5.3 ConservationofHelicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 5.6 MagneticNullpointsandSeparators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 5.6.1 TopologicalDefinitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 5.6.2 ObservationsofCoronalNullpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 5.7 MagneticFieldMeasurementsinRadio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 5.7.1 MagneticFieldsMeasuredfromFree-FreeEmission . . . . . 224 5.7.2 GyroresonanceEmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 5.7.3 GyroresonanceStereoscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 5.7.4 Non-PotentialFieldModelingofGyroresonanceEmission . . 233 5.8 MagneticFieldintheTransitionRegion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 5.8.1 TheMagneticCanopyStructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 5.8.2 Force-FreenessoftheChromosphericMagneticField . . . . . 237 5.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 x CONTENTS 6 Magneto-Hydrodynamics(MHD) 241 6.1 MHDEquations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 6.1.1 ParticleConservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 6.1.2 MomentumorForceEquation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 6.1.3 IdealMHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 6.1.4 EnergyEquation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 6.1.5 ResistiveMHD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 6.2 MHDofCoronalLoops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 6.2.1 Magneto-StaticsinVerticalFluxtubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 6.2.2 LorentzForcenearMagneticNullpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 6.2.3 LorentzForceinCurvedFluxtubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 6.2.4 DynamicsofTwistedFluxtubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 6.2.5 MHDSimulationsofEmergingFluxtubes . . . . . . . . . . . 257 6.2.6 MHDSimulationsofCoronalLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 6.3 MHDInstabilitiesinCoronalLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 6.3.1 Rayleigh−TaylorInstability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 6.3.2 Kruskal−SchwarzschildInstability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 6.3.3 Kelvin−HelmholtzInstability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 6.3.4 BallooningInstability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 6.3.5 ConvectiveThermalInstability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 6.3.6 Radiatively-DrivenThermalInstability . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 6.3.7 HeatingScale-HeightInstability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 6.3.8 ResistiveInstabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 6.3.9 KinkInstability(m=1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 6.3.10 SausageInstability(m=0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 6.4 MHDofQuiescentFilamentsandProminences . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 6.4.1 MagneticFieldConfiguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 6.4.2 EquilibriumModels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 6.4.3 FormationandEvolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 CoronalCondensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 ChromosphericInjection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 FootpointHeating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 DisappearanceofFilaments/Prominences . . . . . . . . . . . 281 6.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 7 MHDOscillations 283 7.1 DispersionRelationofMHDWaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 7.1.1 UnboundedHomogeneousMedium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 7.1.2 SingleMagneticInterface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 7.1.3 SlenderSlabGeometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 7.1.4 CylindricalGeometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 7.2 FastKink-ModeOscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 7.2.1 Kink-ModePeriod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 7.2.2 MagneticFieldStrengthandCoronalSeismology . . . . . . . 294 7.2.3 ObservationsofKink-ModeOscillations . . . . . . . . . . . 295 7.2.4 ProminenceOscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 CONTENTS xi 7.3 FastSausage-ModeOscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 7.3.1 TheWaveNumberCutoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 7.3.2 Sausage-ModePeriod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 7.3.3 ImagingObservationsofSausage-ModeOscillations . . . . . 307 7.3.4 Non-ImagingObservationsofSausage-ModeOscillations . . 311 7.4 Slow-Mode(Acoustic)Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 7.4.1 Slow-ModeOscillationPeriod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 7.4.2 ObservationsofSlow-ModeOscillations . . . . . . . . . . . 317 7.5 DampingofMHDOscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 7.5.1 Non-IdealMHDEffects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 7.5.2 LateralWaveLeakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 7.5.3 FootpointWaveLeakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 7.5.4 PhaseMixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 7.5.5 ResonantAbsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 7.5.6 ObservationalTests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 7.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 8 PropagatingMHDWaves 331 8.1 PropagatingMHDWavesinCoronalLoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 8.1.1 EvolutionaryEquationforSlow-ModeMHDWaves . . . . . 332 8.1.2 ObservationsofAcousticWavesinCoronalLoops . . . . . . 334 8.1.3 PropagatingFast-ModeWavesinCoronalLoops . . . . . . . 336 8.2 PropagatingMHDWavesintheOpenCorona . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 8.2.1 EvolutionaryEquationofMHDWavesinRadialGeometry. . 341 8.2.2 ObservationsofAcousticWavesinOpenCorona . . . . . . . 344 8.2.3 SpectralObservationsofAlfve´nWavesintheOpenCorona . 346 8.3 GlobalWaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 8.3.1 MoretonWaves,EITWaves,andCMEDimming . . . . . . . 348 8.3.2 ModelingandSimulationsofGlobalWaves . . . . . . . . . . 352 8.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 9 CoronalHeating 355 9.1 HeatingEnergyRequirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 9.2 OverviewofCoronalHeatingModels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 9.3 DCHeatingModels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 9.3.1 Stress-InducedReconnection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 9.3.2 Stress-InducedCurrentCascade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 9.3.3 Stress-InducedTurbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 9.4 ACHeatingModels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 9.4.1 Alfve´nicResonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 9.4.2 ResonantAbsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 9.4.3 PhaseMixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 9.4.4 CurrentLayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 9.4.5 MHDTurbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 9.4.6 CyclotronResonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 9.5 OtherCoronalHeatingScenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

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