Physics Lab Experiments

300 Pages·2016·15.606 MB·English

by  Matthew French

P L
HYSICS AB
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XPERIMENTS
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P L
HYSICS AB
E
XPERIMENTS
Matthew M. J. French
MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION
Dulles, Virginia
Boston, Massachusetts
New Delhi
Reprint and Revision Copyright ©2017 by MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION
LLC. All rights reserved.
Original title and copyright: Finding Your Way in the Undergraduate Physics Labo-
ratory. Copyright ©2013 by M.M.J. French. ISBN 978-0-9549780-8-2. All rights
reserved. Published by The Pantaneto Press.
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M.M.J. French. Physics Lab Experiments.
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CONTENTS
About the Author ix
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xv
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Characteristics of the Laboratory 2
1.2 Demonstrating Undergraduate Physics Laboratory 4
Chapter 2 Safety 9
2.1 Hazard Symbols 10
2.2 Electrical 12
2.3 High Voltages 13
2.4 Gas Cylinders 15
2.5 Vacuum Pumps 19
2.5.1 Pressure Units 20
2.5.2 Hand Pumps and Vacu-vins 22
2.5.3 Diaphragm Pump 22
2.5.4 Rotary Pump 22
2.5.5 Diffusion Pump 23
2.5.6 Turbomolecular Pump 23
2.6 Cryogenics 25
2.6.1 Liquid Nitrogen 25
2.6.2 Dry Ice 30
2.6.3 Liquid Helium 32
2.6.4 Helium-3 33
2.6.5 Liquid Oxygen 35
2.6.6 Argon 36
2.6.7 Cryogen Free Cooling 37
2.7 Lasers 38
2.8 Ionizing Radiation 40
Chapter 3 Making Measurements 45
3.1 SI Units 46
3.2 SI Prefixes 47
3.3 Vernier Calipers 47
3.4 Digital Calipers 48
3.5 Micrometer 48
3.6 Balances 49
vi (cid:129) Physics Lab Experiments
3.7 Ammeters 50
3.8 Voltmeters 51
3.9 Resistor Color Codes 52
3.10 Multimeters 52
3.11 Further Ideas on Measurement of Resistance 53
3.12 Constant Current Sources 55
3.13 Lock-in Amplifers 58
3.14 Further Ideas on Reducing Noise in Electrical Measurements 61
3.15 Signal Generator 64
3.15.1 TTL 64
3.16 Oscilloscopes 65
3.17 Light Gates 70
3.17.1 Velocity with One Light Gate 70
3.17.2 Velocity with Two Light Gates 71
3.17.3 Acceleration with Two Light Gates 71
3.17.4 Acceleration with One Light Gate 71
3.18 PASCO Science Workshop Interface 72
3.19 Data Harvest 74
3.20 Pressure Gauges 77
3.21 Temperature Measurement 78
3.21.1 Near Room Temperature 79
3.21.2 Low Temperatures 82
3.21.3 High Temperatures 84
3.22 PID and Temperature Control 84
3.23 Kaye and Laby Tables 86
3.24 Microscopes 87
3.24.1 Optical Microscopes 87
3.24.2 Transmission Electron Microscope 89
3.24.3 Other Microscopes 90
3.25 Spectroscopes 92
3.26 Computers 92
3.26.1 Plugs, Sockets, and Connectors 92
3.26.2 Computer Data Logging 97
3.26.3 Still Cameras and Scanners 105
3.27 Video Cameras 106
3.28 Other Researcher's Data 107
3.29 Wii Controllers 108
3.30 Traditional Photographs 109
Chapter 4 Data Analysis and Errors 113
4.1 Accuracy and Precision 115
4.2 Measurement Errors 117
Contents (cid:129) vii
4.2.1 Random Error 117
4.2.2 Systematic Error 117
4.2.3 Zero Error 117
4.3 Uncertainty 118
4.4 Resolution 118
4.5 Tolerance 118
4.6 Sensitivity 119
4.7 Response Time 119
4.8 The Mean of the Sample 120
4.9 Variance and Standard Deviation of the Sample 121
4.10 Measurement Distributions 123
4.11 Standard Error on a Single Measurement 126
4.12 Standard Error on the Mean 126
4.13 Estimation of Errors 127
4.14 Gaussian Error Distribution 128
4.15 Combination or Propagation of Errors 129
4.15.1 Linear 130
4.15.2 Products and Quotients 131
4.15.3 General Functions 133
4.15.4 Appropriate Significant Figures in Final
Answers and Errors 134
4.16 Plotting Appropriate Graphs 134
4.16.1 Drawing Lines of Best Fit and Finding Gradients 135
4.16.2 Error Bars on Graphs 135
4.16.3 Straight Line Graphs 136
4.16.4 Log Graphs 137
4.17 Graph Drawing Software 137
4.17.1 Excel 2003 and Prior Versions 138
4.17.2 Excel 2010 140
4.17.3 Kaleidagraph 144
4.17.4 MATLAB 147
4.18 Least Squares Fitting 151
4.18.1 Regression line of y on x 151
4.18.2 Steepest Descent 154
4.18.3 Gauss-Newton 155
4.18.4 Levenberg-Marquardt Method 158
4.18.5 Nelder-Mead Method 160
4.18.6 Distribution Testing 164
4.19 Uncertainty in Gradients and Intercepts of Graphs 165
4.20 Fourier Transform 168
4.20.1 Window Functions 171
viii (cid:129) Physics Lab Experiments
Chapter 5 Presenting Results 173
5.1 Lab Book 174
5.2 Reports 175
5.2.1 Software 175
5.2.2 Structure 177
5.2.3 Graphs, Tables, and Diagrams 179
5.2.4 Referencing 183
5.2.5 Equations 185
5.2.6 Special Characters 189
5.3 Posters 192
5.3.1 Software 192
5.3.2 Paper Sizes 193
5.4 Presentations 194
5.4.1 Software 200
Chapter 6 Common Experiments 201
6.1 Example Experiments 201
6.1.1 Measuring Acceleration due to Gravity 202
6.1.2 Measuring the Speed of Light 208
6.2 Example Reports 215
6.2.1 Example Report: Charge Mass Ratio of an Electron 216
6.2.2 Example Report: Investigating Radioactivity 225
6.2.3 Example Report: Latent Heat of Vaporization
of Liquid Nitrogen 251
Index 275
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Matthew French studied for an undergraduate physics degree
at the University of Bristol. While working there towards a PhD
in experimental condensed matter physics, he spent four years
demonstrating experiments in the first year undergraduate physics
laboratory. Now an experienced school teacher and Head of Physics
at Prior Park College, Bath (UK), he is well positioned to bridge the
gap between students' knowledge at the end of secondary school and
that expected of them at the beginning of their university courses.