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Physics Lab Experiments PDF

300 Pages·2016·15.606 MB·English
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P L HYSICS AB E XPERIMENTS LICENSE, DISCLAIMER OF LIABILITY, AND LIMITED WARRANTY By purchasing or using this book (the “Work”), you agree that this license grants permission to use the contents contained herein, but does not give you the right of ownership to any of the textual content in the book or ownership to any of the information or products contained in it. This license does not permit uploading of the Work onto the Internet or on a network (of any kind) without the written consent of the Publisher. Duplication or dissemination of any text, code, simulations, images, etc. contained herein is limited to and subject to licensing terms for the respective products, and permission must be obtained from the Publisher or the owner of the content, etc., in order to reproduce or network any portion of the textual material (in any media) that is contained in the Work. MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION (“MLI” or “the Publisher”) and anyone involved in the creation, writing, or production of the companion disc, accompanying algorithms, code, or computer programs (“the software”), and any accompanying Web site or software of the Work, cannot and do not warrant the performance or results that might be obtained by using the contents of the Work. The author, developers, and the Publisher have used their best efforts to insure the accuracy and functionality of the textual material and/or programs contained in this package; we, however, make no warranty of any kind, express or implied, regarding the performance of these contents or programs. The Work is sold “as is” without warranty (except for defective materials used in manufacturing the book or due to faulty workmanship). The author, developers, and the publisher of any accompanying content, and anyone involved in the composition, production, and manufacturing of this work will not be liable for damages of any kind arising out of the use of (or the inability to use) the algorithms, source code, computer programs, or textual material contained in this publication. This includes, but is not limited to, loss of revenue or profit, or other incidental, physical, or consequential damages arising out of the use of this Work. The sole remedy in the event of a claim of any kind is expressly limited to replacement of the book, and only at the discretion of the Publisher. The use of “implied warranty” and certain “exclusions” vary from state to state, and might not apply to the purchaser of this product. P L HYSICS AB E XPERIMENTS Matthew M. J. French MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION Dulles, Virginia Boston, Massachusetts New Delhi Reprint and Revision Copyright ©2017 by MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION LLC. All rights reserved. Original title and copyright: Finding Your Way in the Undergraduate Physics Labo- ratory. Copyright ©2013 by M.M.J. French. ISBN 978-0-9549780-8-2. All rights reserved. Published by The Pantaneto Press. This publication, portions of it, or any accompanying software may not be repro- duced in any way, stored in a retrieval system of any type, or transmitted by any means, media, electronic display or mechanical display, including, but not limited to, photocopy, recording, Internet postings, or scanning, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Publisher: David Pallai MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION 22841 Quicksilver Drive Dulles, VA 20166 [email protected] www.merclearning.com 1-800-232-0223 M.M.J. French. Physics Lab Experiments. ISBN: 978-1-942270-80-5 The publisher recognizes and respects all marks used by companies, manufactur- ers, and developers as a means to distinguish their products. All brand names and product names mentioned in this book are trademarks or service marks of their respective companies. Any omission or misuse (of any kind) of service marks or trademarks, etc. is not an attempt to infringe on the property of others. Library of Congress Control Number: 2016935948 161718321 Printed in the United States of America This book is printed on acid-free paper. Our titles are available for adoption, license, or bulk purchase by institutions, corpo- rations, etc. For additional information, please contact the Customer Service Dept. at 800-232-0223(toll free). All of our titles are available in digital format at authorcloudware.com and other digital vendors. The sole obligation of MERCURY LEARNING AND INFORMATION to the purchaser is to replace the book, based on defective materials or faulty workman- ship, but not based on the operation or functionality of the product. CONTENTS About the Author ix List of Figures xi List of Tables xv Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Characteristics of the Laboratory 2 1.2 Demonstrating Undergraduate Physics Laboratory 4 Chapter 2 Safety 9 2.1 Hazard Symbols 10 2.2 Electrical 12 2.3 High Voltages 13 2.4 Gas Cylinders 15 2.5 Vacuum Pumps 19 2.5.1 Pressure Units 20 2.5.2 Hand Pumps and Vacu-vins 22 2.5.3 Diaphragm Pump 22 2.5.4 Rotary Pump 22 2.5.5 Diffusion Pump 23 2.5.6 Turbomolecular Pump 23 2.6 Cryogenics 25 2.6.1 Liquid Nitrogen 25 2.6.2 Dry Ice 30 2.6.3 Liquid Helium 32 2.6.4 Helium-3 33 2.6.5 Liquid Oxygen 35 2.6.6 Argon 36 2.6.7 Cryogen Free Cooling 37 2.7 Lasers 38 2.8 Ionizing Radiation 40 Chapter 3 Making Measurements 45 3.1 SI Units 46 3.2 SI Prefixes 47 3.3 Vernier Calipers 47 3.4 Digital Calipers 48 3.5 Micrometer 48 3.6 Balances 49 vi (cid:129) Physics Lab Experiments 3.7 Ammeters 50 3.8 Voltmeters 51 3.9 Resistor Color Codes 52 3.10 Multimeters 52 3.11 Further Ideas on Measurement of Resistance 53 3.12 Constant Current Sources 55 3.13 Lock-in Amplifers 58 3.14 Further Ideas on Reducing Noise in Electrical Measurements 61 3.15 Signal Generator 64 3.15.1 TTL 64 3.16 Oscilloscopes 65 3.17 Light Gates 70 3.17.1 Velocity with One Light Gate 70 3.17.2 Velocity with Two Light Gates 71 3.17.3 Acceleration with Two Light Gates 71 3.17.4 Acceleration with One Light Gate 71 3.18 PASCO Science Workshop Interface 72 3.19 Data Harvest 74 3.20 Pressure Gauges 77 3.21 Temperature Measurement 78 3.21.1 Near Room Temperature 79 3.21.2 Low Temperatures 82 3.21.3 High Temperatures 84 3.22 PID and Temperature Control 84 3.23 Kaye and Laby Tables 86 3.24 Microscopes 87 3.24.1 Optical Microscopes 87 3.24.2 Transmission Electron Microscope 89 3.24.3 Other Microscopes 90 3.25 Spectroscopes 92 3.26 Computers 92 3.26.1 Plugs, Sockets, and Connectors 92 3.26.2 Computer Data Logging 97 3.26.3 Still Cameras and Scanners 105 3.27 Video Cameras 106 3.28 Other Researcher's Data 107 3.29 Wii Controllers 108 3.30 Traditional Photographs 109 Chapter 4 Data Analysis and Errors 113 4.1 Accuracy and Precision 115 4.2 Measurement Errors 117 Contents (cid:129) vii 4.2.1 Random Error 117 4.2.2 Systematic Error 117 4.2.3 Zero Error 117 4.3 Uncertainty 118 4.4 Resolution 118 4.5 Tolerance 118 4.6 Sensitivity 119 4.7 Response Time 119 4.8 The Mean of the Sample 120 4.9 Variance and Standard Deviation of the Sample 121 4.10 Measurement Distributions 123 4.11 Standard Error on a Single Measurement 126 4.12 Standard Error on the Mean 126 4.13 Estimation of Errors 127 4.14 Gaussian Error Distribution 128 4.15 Combination or Propagation of Errors 129 4.15.1 Linear 130 4.15.2 Products and Quotients 131 4.15.3 General Functions 133 4.15.4 Appropriate Significant Figures in Final Answers and Errors 134 4.16 Plotting Appropriate Graphs 134 4.16.1 Drawing Lines of Best Fit and Finding Gradients 135 4.16.2 Error Bars on Graphs 135 4.16.3 Straight Line Graphs 136 4.16.4 Log Graphs 137 4.17 Graph Drawing Software 137 4.17.1 Excel 2003 and Prior Versions 138 4.17.2 Excel 2010 140 4.17.3 Kaleidagraph 144 4.17.4 MATLAB 147 4.18 Least Squares Fitting 151 4.18.1 Regression line of y on x 151 4.18.2 Steepest Descent 154 4.18.3 Gauss-Newton 155 4.18.4 Levenberg-Marquardt Method 158 4.18.5 Nelder-Mead Method 160 4.18.6 Distribution Testing 164 4.19 Uncertainty in Gradients and Intercepts of Graphs 165 4.20 Fourier Transform 168 4.20.1 Window Functions 171 viii (cid:129) Physics Lab Experiments Chapter 5 Presenting Results 173 5.1 Lab Book 174 5.2 Reports 175 5.2.1 Software 175 5.2.2 Structure 177 5.2.3 Graphs, Tables, and Diagrams 179 5.2.4 Referencing 183 5.2.5 Equations 185 5.2.6 Special Characters 189 5.3 Posters 192 5.3.1 Software 192 5.3.2 Paper Sizes 193 5.4 Presentations 194 5.4.1 Software 200 Chapter 6 Common Experiments 201 6.1 Example Experiments 201 6.1.1 Measuring Acceleration due to Gravity 202 6.1.2 Measuring the Speed of Light 208 6.2 Example Reports 215 6.2.1 Example Report: Charge Mass Ratio of an Electron 216 6.2.2 Example Report: Investigating Radioactivity 225 6.2.3 Example Report: Latent Heat of Vaporization of Liquid Nitrogen 251 Index 275 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dr. Matthew French studied for an undergraduate physics degree at the University of Bristol. While working there towards a PhD in experimental condensed matter physics, he spent four years demonstrating experiments in the first year undergraduate physics laboratory. Now an experienced school teacher and Head of Physics at Prior Park College, Bath (UK), he is well positioned to bridge the gap between students' knowledge at the end of secondary school and that expected of them at the beginning of their university courses.

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