Physics for Radiation Protection, Third Edition

666 Pages·2013·4.438 MB·English

by  James E. Martin(auth.)

JamesE.Martin
PhysicsforRadiationProtection
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James E. Martin
Physics for Radiation Protection
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To the memory of
Frank A. and Virginia E. Martin
and JoAnn Martin Burkhart.
VII
Contents
Preface XVII
1 StructureofAtoms 1
1.1 AtomConstituents 2
1.2 Structure,Identity,andStabilityofAtoms 5
1.3 ChartoftheNuclides 6
1.4 NuclearModels 8
Problems–Chapter1 9
2 AtomsandEnergy 11
2.1 AtomMeasures 12
2.2 EnergyConceptsforAtoms 14
2.2.1 Mass-energy 15
2.2.2 BindingEnergyofNuclei 16
2.3 Summary 18
OtherSuggestedSources 18
Problems–Chapter2 19
3 RadioactiveTransformation 21
3.1 ProcessesofRadioactiveTransformation 21
3.1.1 TransformationofNeutron-richRadioactiveNuclei 23
3.1.2 DoubleBeta(bb)Transformation 27
3.1.3 TransformationofProton-richNuclei 27
3.1.4 PositronEmission 29
3.1.5 AverageEnergyofNegatronandPositronEmitters 32
3.1.6 ElectronCapture(EC) 33
3.1.7 RadioactiveTransformationofHeavyNucleibyAlphaParticle
Emission 35
3.1.8 TheoryofAlphaParticleTransformation 38
3.1.9 Transuranic(TRU)Radionuclides 40
3.1.10 GammaEmission 41
3.1.11 InternalTransition(MetastableorIsomericStates) 42
3.1.12 InternalConversion 43
PhysicsforRadiationProtection,ThirdEdition.JamesE.Martin
Copyright(cid:1)2013WILEY-VCHVerlag&Co.KGaA.Published2013byWILEY-VCHVerlagGmbH&Co.KGaA.
VIII Contents
3.1.13 MultipleModesofRadioactiveTransformation 49
3.1.14 TransformationbyDelayedNeutronEmission 51
3.1.15 TransformationbySpontaneousFission 51
3.1.16 ProtonEmission 53
3.2 DecaySchemes 54
3.3 RateofRadioactiveTransformation 57
3.3.1 Activity 58
3.3.2 UnitsofRadioactiveTransformation 58
3.3.3 MathematicsofRadioactiveTransformation 60
3.3.4 Half-Life 62
3.3.5 MeanLife 63
3.3.6 EffectiveHalf-life 64
3.4 RadioactivityCalculations 65
3.4.1 Half-lifeDetermination 68
3.5 Activity–massRelationships 70
3.5.1 SpecificActivity 70
3.6 RadioactiveSeriesTransformation 73
3.6.1 SeriesDecayCalculations 73
3.6.2 RecursiveKinetics:theBatemanEquations 76
3.7 RadioactiveEquilibrium 77
3.7.1 SecularEquilibrium 78
3.7.2 TransientEquilibrium 80
3.7.3 RadionuclideGenerators 81
3.8 TotalNumberofTransformations(Usesofsandk ) 84
Eff
3.9 DiscoveryoftheNeutrino 86
Acknowledgments 87
OtherSuggestedSources 87
Problems–Chapter3 88
4 Interactions 91
4.1 ProductionofX-rays 91
4.2 CharacteristicX-rays 93
4.2.1 X-raysandAtomicStructure 95
4.2.2 AugerElectrons 96
4.3 NuclearInteractions 98
4.3.1 Cross-Section 100
4.3.2 Q-valuesforNuclearReactions 102
4.4 AlphaParticleInteractions 104
4.4.1 Alpha–NeutronReactions 105
4.5 TransmutationbyProtonsandDeuterons 106
4.5.1 Proton–AlphaParticle(p,a)Reactions 108
4.5.2 Proton–Neutron(p,n)Reactions 109
4.5.3 Proton–Gamma(p,c)Reactions 110
4.5.4 Proton–DeuteronReactions 110
4.5.5 Deuteron–Alpha(d,a)Reactions 111
Contents IX
4.5.6 Deuteron–Proton(d,p)andDeuteron–Neutron(d,n)Reactions 111
4.6 NeutronInteractions 114
4.6.1 RadiativeCapture(n,c)Reactions 114
4.6.2 ChargedParticleEmission(CPE) 115
4.6.3 Neutron–Proton(n,p)Reactions 116
4.6.4 Neutron–Neutron(n,2n)Reactions 116
4.7 ActivationProductCalculations 117
4.7.1 NeutronActivationProductCalculations 119
4.7.2 ChargedParticlesCalculations 124
4.8 MedicalIsotopeReactions 126
4.9 TransuraniumElements 128
4.10 PhotonInteractions 130
4.10.1 ActivationbyPhotons 130
4.11 FissionandFusionReactions 133
4.11.1 Fission 133
4.11.2 Fusion 134
4.12 Summary 138
OtherSuggestedSources 139
Problems–Chapter4 139
5 NuclearFissionanditsProducts 143
5.1 FissionEnergy 145
5.2 PhysicsofSustainedNuclearFission 147
5.3 NeutronEconomyandReactivity 152
5.4 NuclearPowerReactors 154
5.4.1 ReactorDesign:BasicSystems 155
5.5 LightWaterReactors(LWRs) 157
5.5.1 PressurizedWaterReactor(PWR) 157
5.5.2 BoilingWaterReactor(BWR) 159
5.5.3 InherentSafetyFeaturesofLWRs 161
5.5.4 DecayHeatinPowerReactors 163
5.5.5 UraniumEnrichment 164
5.6 HeavyWaterReactors(HWRs) 165
5.6.1 HWRSafetySystems 168
5.7 BreederReactors 169
5.7.1 LiquidMetalFastBreederReactor(LMFBR) 171
5.8 Gas-cooledReactors 174
5.8.1 High-temperatureGasReactor(HTGR) 175
5.9 ReactorRadioactivity 176
5.9.1 FuelCladding 177
5.9.2 RadioactiveProductsofFission 178
5.9.3 ProductionofIndividualFissionProducts 182
5.9.4 FissionProductsinSpentFuel 184
5.9.5 FissionProductPoisons 185
5.10 RadioactivityinReactors 188
X Contents
5.10.1 ActivationProductsinNuclearReactors 188
5.10.2 TritiumProductioninReactors 191
5.10.3 Low-levelRadioactiveWaste 192
5.11 Summary 193
Acknowledgments 194
OtherSuggestedSources 195
Problems–Chapter5 195
6 NaturallyOccurringRadiationandRadioactivity 197
6.1 DiscoveryandInterpretation 197
6.2 BackgroundRadiation 199
6.3 CosmicRadiation 200
6.4 CosmogenicRadionuclides 203
6.5 NaturallyRadioacitveSeries 207
6.5.1 NeptuniumSeriesRadionuclides 214
6.6 SinglyOccurringPrimordialRadionuclides 214
6.7 RadioactiveOresandByproducts 216
6.7.1 ResourceRecovery 218
6.7.2 UraniumOres 218
6.7.3 WaterTreatmentSludge 219
6.7.4 PhosphateIndustryWastes 219
6.7.5 ElementalPhosphorus 220
6.7.6 ManhattanProjectWastes 221
6.7.7 ThoriumOres 223
6.8 RadioactivityDating 224
6.8.1 CarbonDating 224
6.8.2 DatingbyPrimordialRadionuclides 225
6.8.3 Potassium–ArgonDating 226
6.8.4 Ionium(230Th)Method 227
6.8.5 Lead-210Dating 227
6.9 RadonanditsProgeny 228
6.9.1 RadonSubseries 229
6.9.2 WorkingLevelforRadonProgeny 232
6.9.3 MeasurementofRadon 236
6.10 Summary 240
Acknowledgements 241
OtherSuggestedSources 241
Problems–Chapter6 242
7 InteractionsofRadiationwithMatter 245
7.1 RadiationDoseandUnits 245
7.1.1 RadiationAbsorbedDose 246
7.1.2 RadiationDoseEquivalent 246
7.1.3 RadiationExposure 247
7.2 RadiationDoseCalculations 249
Contents XI
7.2.1 InverseSquareLaw 249
7.3 InteractionProcesses 250
7.4 InteractionsofAlphaParticlesandHeavyNuclei 252
7.4.1 RecoilNucleiandFissionFragments 254
7.4.2 RangeofAlphaParticles 254
7.5 BetaParticleInteractionsandDose 257
7.5.1 EnergyLossbyIonization 258
7.5.2 EnergyLossesbyBremsstrahlung 258
7.5.3 CerenkovRadiation 259
7.5.4 AttenuationofBetaParticles 261
7.5.5 RangeVersusEnergyofBetaParticles 262
7.5.6 RadiationDosefromBetaParticles 264
7.5.7 BetaDosefromContaminatedSurfaces 267
7.5.8 BetaContaminationonSkinorClothing 268
7.5.9 BetaDosefromHotParticles 269
7.6 PhotonInteractions 270
7.6.1 PhotoelectricInteractions 271
7.6.2 ComptonInteractions 272
7.6.3 PairProduction 274
7.6.4 Photodisintegration 276
7.7 PhotonAttenuationandAbsorption 277
7.7.1 Attenuation(l)andEnergyAbsorption(l )Coefficients 280
En
7.7.2 EffectofEandZonPhotonAttenuation/Absorption 284
7.7.3 AbsorptionEdges 286
Checkpoints 288
7.8 EnergyTransferandAbsorptionbyPhotons 288
7.8.1 ElectronicEquilibrium 293
7.8.2 Bragg–GrayTheory 295
7.9 Exposure/DoseCalculations 296
7.9.1 PointSources 297
7.9.2 GammaRayConstant,C 298
7.9.3 ExposureandAbsorbedDose 300
7.9.4 Exposure,Kerma,andAbsorbedDose 301
7.10 Summary 303
Acknowledgments 303
OtherSuggestedSources 304
Problems–Chapter7 304
8 RadiationShielding 307
8.1 ShieldingofAlpha-EmittingSources 307
8.2 ShieldingofBeta-EmittingSources 308
8.2.1 AttenuationofBetaParticles 308
8.2.2 BremsstrahlungEffectsforBetaShielding 311
8.3 ShieldingofPhotonSources 314
8.3.1 ShieldingofGoodGeometryPhotonSources 315