Physical Metallurgy Handbook (Mcgraw-Hill Handbooks)

1833 Pages·2002·35.7 MB·English

by  Anil Sinha

PMHPR 8/10/02 12:10 PM Page i
PHYSICAL
METALLURGY
HANDBOOK
Anil Kumar Sinha
McGRAW-HILL
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PMHPR 8/10/02 12:10 PM Page ii
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PMHPR 8/10/02 12:10 PM Page ix
PREFACE
Physical Metallurgy Handbookis an enlarged edition of my earlier Ferrous Physi-
cal Metallurgy (Butterworths,1989). Four new chapters of increased significance,
namely,diffusion in metals and alloys,solidification,surface modification and thin
film deposition,and thermal spray coatings have been added in addition to the com-
plete revision of all 15 chapters.As before this Handbook focuses on both the theo-
retical elements, such as those dealing with diffusion, solidification, deformation,
annealing phenomena,nucleation in solids,phase transformation in solids,kinetics
of phase transformations,structure-property relationships,and the processing ele-
ments such as dealing with heat treating operations,surface modification and thin
film deposition,and thermal spray coatings.This Handbook covers mostly ferrous
and nonferrous alloys.
Chapter 1 is devoted to iron-carbon alloys and their relevant phase diagrams,
effects of alloying elements,and classification of steels and cast irons.Chapter 2 is
on diffusion in metals and alloys,and it deals with the diffusion equation,diffusion
mechanisms,the effect of key variables on diffusivity,self-diffusion,diffusion in sub-
stitutional and concentrated alloys,electro- and thermomigration;diffusion along
short circuits,diffusion in ionic solids and semiconductors,and radiation effects and
diffusion.Chapter 3 describes heat transfer in solidification;nucleation and growth;
plane front solidification of alloys;cellular and dendritic growth;eutectics,mono-
tectics, and peritectics; segregation; solidification processes and cast structures;
single crystal growth; and grain refinement and eutectic modification. Chapter 4
treats tensile properties, yielding phenomena, flow stress, cold working, slip and
twinning,strain aging,and deformation texture in engineering materials.Chapter 5
focuses on release of stored energy, recovery, recrystallization, laws of recrystal-
lization,recrystallization texture,and grain growth. Chapter 6 deals with classical
nucleation theories,nonclassical nucleation (i.e.,spinodal decomposition),precipi-
tation hardening in a variety of ferrous and nonferrous alloys,and strength of pre-
cipitation hardened alloys.Chapter 7 explains both the mechanisms and kinetics of
transformation of austenite into pearlite,interphase precipitation,fibrous carbide,
proeutectoid phases, ferrite morphology, proeutectoid cementite, and ferrite-
pearlite and pearlitic steels. Chapter 8 introduces general and typical characteris-
tics of martensitic transformation,ferrous and nonferrous martensites,nucleation
and growth in martensitic transformation,thermoelastic martensitic transformation,
strengthening mechanisms, toughness of martensite, and omega transformation.
Chapter 9 emphasizes three definitions of bainite based on microstructure,surface
relief,and kinetics;overall mechanisms;acicular ferrite;and bainitic steels.Chapter
10 elaborates on the formation of austenite and retained austenite,austenitic grain
size,austenitic and superaustenitic stainless steels,duplex and superduplex stain-
less steels,and physical properties and machinability of stainless steels.Chapter 11
details isothermal and continuous cooling transformation diagrams. Chapter 12
discusses the definition,importance,selection,and classification of heat treatment;
annealing,normalizing,decarburization,and graphitization of steels;annealing and
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PMHPR 8/10/02 12:10 PM Page x
x PREFACE
normalizing of cast irons;engineering properties and applications of cast irons;and
structure-property relations in gray iron.Chapter 13 expounds quenching,quench-
hardening, and inverse-quench hardening of steels; direct quenching; intense
quenching and martempering of steels; austempering of steels and ductile iron;
quench cracking; hardenability and hardenabilty steels; and alloy steel selection
based on hardeanbility. Chapter 14 offers a detailed treatment on tempering,the
structural and mechanical property changes associated with tempering of hardened
steels,secondary hardening of steels,the tempering parameter,tempering methods,
strengthening mechanisms of tempered martensite and bainite, various types of
embrittlement phenomena occurring in low alloy quenched and tempered steels,
and maraging steels. Chapter 15 gives an account of ferrous and nonferrous ther-
momechanical treatments,superplasticity largely found in ferrous and nonferrous
alloys, and potential applications in aerospace industries. Chapter 16 thoroughly
covers various surface hardening heat treatments and their advantages,disadvan-
tages,and applications as well as newer processes such as supercarburizing,borid-
ing, and the thermoreactive deposition/diffusion (TRD) processes. Chapter 17
concentrates on overheating and burning of low alloy steels,residual stresses,dis-
tortion in heat treatment,and the importance of correct design to lessen distortion
and the danger of cracking. Chapters 18 dwells on,in detail,ion beam processes,
physical vapor deposition,molecular beam epitaxy,and chemical vapor deposition.
The final chapter describes the advantages, disadvantages, important processes,
recent developments, coating characteristics, and applications of thermal spray
techniques.
The purpose of this Handbook is to present to the readers the latest infor-
mation on fundamental principles, alloy design, and technologically useful
microstructures,properties,forms,and applications of ferrous and nonferrous ma-
terials.This Handbook,which describes physical metallurgy with a novel approach
and a comprehensive treatment,will serve as a valuable tool in understanding the
interplay between microstructure, properties, and performance of a variety of
engineering materials;in the selection of materials,treatments,and processes for
specific applications; in solving heat treatment, surface modification, and other
processing problems;in the tradeoff decisions that are often made in the automo-
tive,aerospace,and other metalworking industries;and in the design,product devel-
opment,and materials engineering of components that must operate reliably under
service conditions.
The intended audience of this Handbook includes practicing materials scientists;
practicing manufacturing,mechanical,metallurgical,and product engineers;design
engineers;researchers;heat treaters;sophisticated coaters;senior undergraduate stu-
dents;and beginning graduate students.Academic courses for which the book might
be useful as a text or for collateral readings are physical metallurgy,ferrous physi-
cal metallurgy, phase transformations, heat treatment of ferrous and nonferrous
alloys,surface modification and thin film deposition,and thermal spray coatings.
The exhaustive lists of references provided at the end of each chapter will enable
readers to pursue the subject in still greater detail.The abundance of figures and
tables provided in the text will be useful for better comprehension of the concepts
of physical metallurgy.
Anil Kumar Sinha
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I acknowledge with gratitude the helpful comments and valuable advice on various
sections of the Handbook provided by Professor W. C. Leslie and C. R. Brooks
(Chapter 1);Professors R.W.Balluffi,P.G.Shewmon,U.Gösele,and T.Y.Tan and
Drs. M. C. Petri and E. P. Simonen (Chapter 2);Professors M. C. Flemings,R. K.
Trivedi,J.D.Verhoeven,W.Kurz,and A.Hellawell and Dr.K.P.Young (Chapter
3); Professor F. B. Pickering and Drs. M. A. Imam, C. S. Pande, H. Jones, Z.
Zimerman (Chapter 4); Professors R. W. Cahn, R. D. Doherty,T. Gladman, and
C. L. Briant and Drs. B. B. Rath,and B. P. Bewlay (Chapter 5);Professors T. H.
Sanders,W.A.Soffa,and A.J.Ardell and Drs.J.F.Grubb and Terry Tebold (Chapter
6);Professors G.J.Shiflet,F.B.Pickering,Paul Clayton,M.R.Notis,and T.Gladman
and Drs. Bruce L. Bramfitt and Roger K. Steele (Chapter 7); Professor G. B.
Olson and F. B. Pickering and Dr. L. McD. Schetky (Chapter 8);Professors H. I.
Aaronson,H.K.D.H.Bhadeshia,and F.B.Pickering and Drs.Bruce L.Bramfitt
and Roger K.Steele (Chapter 9);Drs.Riad Asfahani,and J.F.Grubb (Chapter 10);
Dr.R.Vishwanathan (Chapter 12);Professor J.S.Kirkaldy,Drs.B.M.Kapadia and
R. W. Foreman, and Messrs. R. R. Blackwood, R. Keogh, and Rick Houghton
(Chapter 13); Professors R. A. Oriani and C. J. McMahon, Jr. and Drs. A. M.
Sherman,K.A.Taylor,Michael L.Schmidt,Terry Tebold,James M.Dahl,and J.H.
Bulloch (Chapter 14);Professors C. M. Sellars,T. Gladman,D. C. Dunand,F. B.
Pickering, and J. C. Pilling and E. M. Taleef and Drs. Jeffrey Wadsworth, Steve
Madeiro,Noshir M.Bhathena,and Rolf G.Sundberg (Chapter 15);Drs.Tohru Arai,
V.S.Nemkov,V.I.Rudnev,C.A.Stickels,R.W.Foreman,David Pye,H.-J.Hunger,
R.Bakish,Joarchim Bosslet,and W.K.Liliental and Messrs.R.C.Goldstein,Tom
Sterner,Steven Verhoff,Mike Ives,Rick Houghton,M.M.Stirrine,Joseph Greene,
and J.R.Easterday (Chapter 16);Messrs.G.Parrish and W.T.Cook (Chapter 17);
Professors R. L. Boxman,Markus Pessa,Deepak G. Bhat,and William Rees,Jr.,
and Drs.Gary Tompa,Robert Aharonov,D.M.Mattox,Bruce Sartwell,Dennis Teer,
A.J.Armini,and Angel Sanjurjo (Chapter 18);and Professor Lech Pawlowski and
Drs.R.C.Tucker,Jr.and Richard Knight (Chapter 19).
I also acknowledge many societies and publishers for their generous permission
to use figures, photographs, and tables in this Handbook. Thanks are due to the
management and staff of McGraw Hill for their editorial and administrative con-
tributions to the production of this book. The author would like to express his
appreciation to Messrs.Mark J.Eriksen and Roy Smith of Winona State University
Library for their dedicated help in getting articles,books,and a majority of refer-
ence materials.Finally,I wish to pay tribute to my wife Priti,son Manish,daughter-
in-law Rashmi,and daughter Shruti for their understanding,love,moral support,
and sacrifice,without which this book would not have been completed.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Anil Kumar Sinha, Ph.D., M. Tech, is a former professor of metallurgical
engineering at Notre Dame University, Cornell University, the University of
Wisconsin,and Ranchi University.He also worked at Peerless Chain Company as
Staff Metallurgist, Thompson Steel Company, Inc. as Manager of Metallurgy
and Quality Control, Bohn Engine & Foundry as Senior Metallurgist and Chief
Metallurgist, and National Metallurgical Laboratory as Senior Research Fellow.
Currently president of Computer Wire EDM Corporation and a consultant,he is
the author of an earlier version of this book,Ferrous Physical Metallurgy,as well as
another book,Powder Metallurgy,and sixteen research papers. Dr. Sinha earned
his Ph.D.at the University of Minnesota and his Master of Technology in Physical
Metallurgy from the Indian Institute of Technology.
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CONTENTS
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
About the Author xii
Chapter 1. Iron-Carbon Alloys 1.1
1.1. Introduction 1.1
1.2. Crystal Structures of Iron and Iron-Carbon Alloys 1.1
1.3. Phase Diagram 1.3
1.4. Critical Temperatures 1.7
1.5. Slowly Cooled Plain-Carbon Steels 1.9
1.6. Solubility of Carbon and Nitrogen in Ferrite and Austenite 1.12
1.7. Effects of Alloying Elements 1.14
1.8. Steel Classifications 1.26
1.9. Designations for Steels 1.51
1.10. Cast Iron Classifications 1.53
1.11. Alloying Elements in Gray Cast Iron 1.66
1.12. Alloying Elements in Ductile Iron 1.68
References 1.69
Chapter 2. Diffusion in Metals and Alloys 2.1
2.1. Introduction 2.1
2.2. Diffusion Equation 2.2
2.3. Atomistic Diffusion Mechanisms 2.26
2.4. Random Walk Theory of Microscopic Diffusion 2.32
2.5. Vacancy Diffusion 2.33
2.6. Effect of Key Variables on Diffusivity 2.40
2.7. Types of Diffusion Coefficients 2.50
2.8. Self-Diffusion in Pure Metals 2.53
2.9. Diffusion in Dilute Substitutional Alloys 2.56
2.10. Diffusion in Concentrated Alloys 2.58
2.11. Electro- and Thermomigration 2.69
2.12. Diffusion along Short Circuits 2.76
2.13. Application of Thin Films to Diffusion Study 2.92
2.14. Diffusion in Ionic Solids 2.93
2.15. Diffusion and Diffusion-Induced Defects in Semiconductors 2.96
2.16. Radiation Effects and Diffusion 2.103
References 2.112
iii
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iv CONTENTS
Chapter 3. Solidification 3.1
3.1. Introduction 3.1
3.2. Heat Transfer in Solidification 3.1
3.3. Nucleation during solidification 3.7
3.4. Growth from Melt 3.14
3.5. Interface Growth 3.24
3.6. Plane Front Solidification of Alloys 3.26
3.7. Cellular and Dendritic Growth 3.41
3.8. Solidification of Eutectics,Monotectics,and Peritectics 3.54
3.9. Segregation 3.78
3.10. Solidification Processes and Cast Structures 3.93
3.11. Single-Crystal Growth,Grain Refinement,and Eutectic Modification 3.115
3.12. New Solidification Processes 3.141
3.13. Directional Solidification Processing 3.163
References 3.165
Chapter 4. Plastic Deformation 4.1
4.1. Introduction 4.1
4.2. Tensile Properties 4.1
4.3. Yielding and Plastic Flow 4.12
4.4. Flow Stress 4.18
4.5. Cold Working 4.27
4.6. Strain Aging 4.28
4.7. Deformation Twinning 4.33
4.8. Deformation Texture 4.44
References 4.49
Chapter 5. Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 5.1
5.1. Introduction 5.1
5.2. Release of Stored Energy 5.1
5.3. Recovery 5.3
5.4. Recrystallization 5.12
5.5. Recrystallization of Two-Phase Alloys 5.27
5.6. Recrystallization Temperature 5.29
5.7. Laws of Recrystallization 5.32
5.8. Recrystallization Texture 5.33
5.9. Grain Growth 5.39
References 5.55
Chapter 6. Nucleation in Solids 6.1
6.1. Introduction 6.1
6.2. Classical Homogeneous Nucleation 6.2
6.3. Classical Homogeneous Nucleation Rate in Solids 6.7
6.4. Heterogeneous Nucleation 6.8
6.5. Mechanism of Loss of Coherency 6.15
6.6. Spinodal Decomposition 6.15
6.7. Precipitation Hardening 6.28
6.8. Strength of Precipitation-Hardened Alloys 6.57
References 6.70
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CONTENTS v
Chapter 7. Pearlite and Proeutectoid Phases 7.1
7.1. Introduction 7.1
7.2. Pearlite 7.1
7.3. Interphase Precipitation 7.15
7.4. Fibrous Carbides 7.20
7.5. Proeutectoid Phases 7.21
7.6. Ferrite Morphology 7.21
7.7. Proeutectoid Cementite 7.41
7.8. Ferrite-Pearlite and Pearlitic Steels 7.43
References 7.63
Chapter 8. Martensite 8.1
8.1. Introduction 8.1
8.2. General Characteristics of Martensitic Transformation 8.3
8.3. Typical Characteristics of Martensitic Transformation 8.9
8.4. Ferrous Martensite 8.24
8.5. Nonferrous Martensite 8.36
8.6. Nucleation and Growth in Martensitic Transformation 8.39
8.7. Thermoelastic Martensitic Transformation 8.45
8.8. Strengthening Mechanisms 8.75
8.9. Toughness of Martensite 8.81
8.10. Omega Transformation 8.81
References 8.83
Chapter 9. Bainite 9.1
9.1. Introduction 9.1
9.2. Definitions of Bainite 9.2
9.3. Overall Mechanisms 9.21
9.4. Acicular Ferrite 9.24
9.5. Bainitic Steels 9.29
9.6. Weldability of Bainitic Steels 9.44
References 9.45
Chapter 10. Austenite 10.1
10.1. Introduction 10.1
10.2. Austenite Formation 10.1
10.3. Austenite Grain Size 10.7
10.4. Retained Austenite 10.14
10.5. Austenitic Stainless Steels 10.19
10.6. Superaustenitic Stainless Steels 10.86
10.7. Duplex Stainless Steels 10.88
10.8. Superduplex Stainless Steels 10.98
10.9. Physical Properties of Stainless Steels 10.99
10.10. Machinability of Stainless Steels 10.104
References 10.107
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vi CONTENTS
Chapter 11. Isothermal and Continuous Transformation Diagrams 11.1
11.1. Introduction 11.1
11.2. Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 11.1
11.3. Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams 11.10
11.4. Conclusion 11.19
References 11.21
Chapter 12. Basic Heat Treatment 12.1
12.1. Introduction 12.1
12.2. Importance,Selection,and Classification of Heat Treatment 12.1
12.3. Annealing of Steels 12.3
12.4. Decarburization 12.20
12.5. (Secondary) Graphitization of Steels 12.21
12.6. Normalizing 12.23
12.7. Anncaling and Normalizing of Cast Irons 12.27
12.8. Engineering Properties and Applications of Cast Irons 12.36
12.9. Structure-Property Relations in Gray Iron 12.67
References 12.67
Chapter 13. Hardening and Hardenability 13.1
13.1. Introduction 13.1
13.2. Quenching 13.1
13.3. Quench-Hardening 13.65
13.4. Inverse Quench-Hardening of Steel 13.68
13.5. Direct Quenching 13.68
13.6. Intense Quenching of Steel 13.69
13.7. Martempering of Steel 13.72
13.8. Martempering of Gray Cast Iron 13.74
13.9. Austempering of Steel 13.77
13.10. Austempering of Ductile Iron 13.86
13.11. Quench Cracking 13.94
13.12. Effect of Carbon on Hardness in Hardened Steel 13.96
13.13. Hardenability 13.98
13.14. Hardenability (or H-) Steels 13.133
13.15. Alloy Steel Selection Guide Based on Hardenability 13.140
References 13.147
Chapter 14. Tempering 14.1
14.1. Introduction 14.1
14.2. Structural Changes on Tempering 14.1
14.3. Mechanical Property Changes on Tempering 14.20
14.4. Effects of Alloying Elements on Tempering 14.24
14.5. Secondary Hardening 14.26
14.6. Secondary Hardening Steels 14.28
14.7. Nucleation and Growth of Alloy Carbides 14.45
14.8. Effect of Time and Temperature on Tempering (or Tempering Parameter) 14.45
14.9. Methods of Tempering 14.50
14.10. Strengthening Mechanisms of Tempered Martensite and Bainite 14.59