Physical Geology PDF
Preview Physical Geology
Generalized Geologic and Tectonic Map of North America SEDIMENTARY UNITS SPECIAL UNITS PRECAMBRIAN Thick deposits in structurally Paleozoic and Mesozoic Former subduction complex Exposed parts of Basement igneous and negative areas active margin deposits rocks of the Pacific border Ouachita foldbelt metamorphic complexes mainly of Precambrian age Synorogenic and Paleozoic and Mesozoic postorogenic deposits passive margin deposits Proboaf bIlnen wuietisatenr nfo eldxbteenltsion Grenville foldbelt In cores of northern Deformed 880–1,000 m.y. ago Alaska ranges Late Precambrian deposits PLATFORM AREAS Of Middle and Upper Proterozoic ages Hudsonian foldbelts Deformed 1,640–1,820 m.y. ago VOLCANIC AND PLUTONIC UNITS Ice cap of Quaternary age Platform deposits on On Precambrian and Precambrian basement Paleozoic basement In central craton Kenoran foldbelts Postorogenic volcanic cover Ultramafic rocks Deformed 2,390–2,600 m.y. ago Platform deposits on Platform deposits within Paleozoic basement the Precambrian Granitic plutons In Atlantic and Mainly in the Anorthosite bodies Ages are generally within the Gulf coastal plains Canadian Shield Plutons composed almost span of the tectonic cycle of entirely of plagioclase the foldbelt in which they lie STRUCTURAL SYMBOLS Normal fault Subsea fault Hachures on downthrown side Salt domes and salt diapirs In Gulf coastal plain Strike-slip fault and Gulf of Mexico Arrows show relative lateral movement Volcano Thrust fault World’s oldest rock Barbs on upthrown side 1000 0 +1000 Contours on basement surfaces beneath platform areas Axes of seafloor spreading All contours are below sea level except where marked with plus symbols. Interval is 1,000 meters Modified from the Generalized Tectonic Map of North America by P.B. King and Gertrude J. Edmonston, U.S. Geological Survey Map I-688 Metamorphic Shale Conglomerate Granite basement rock Basalt Limestone Sandstone Breccia Crystalline Cross-bedded continental Dolomite sandstone Rock salt crust PREFACE iii Thirteenth Edition Charles C. Plummer Emeritus of California State University at Sacramento Diane H. Carlson California State University at Sacramento Lisa Hammersley California State University at Sacramento TM TM PHYSICAL GEOLOGY, THIRTEENTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2008, 2007, and 2005. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOW/DOW 0 9 ISBN 978–0–07–337671–4 MHID 0–07–337671–X Publisher: Ryan Blankenship Executive Editor: Margaret J. Kemp Director of Development: Kristine Tibbetts Senior Marketing Manager: Lisa Nicks Lead Project Manager: Sheila M. Frank Senior Production Supervisor: Sherry L. Kane Senior Media Project Manager: Jodi K. Banowetz Design Coordinator: Brenda A. Rolwes Cover Designer: Studio Montage, St. Louis, Missouri (USE) Cover Image: Getty Images Lead Photo Research Coordinator: Carrie K. Burger Photo Research: Jerry Marshall/pictureresearching.com Compositor: Precision Graphics Typeface: 10.5/12 Times Roman Printer: R. R. Donnelley Willard, OH All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Plummer, Charles C., 1937- Physical geology / Charles C. Plummer. — 13th ed. / Diane H. Carlson, Lisa Hammersley. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978–0–07–337671–4 — ISBN 0–07–337671–X (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Physical geology— Textbooks. I. Carlson, Diane H. II. Hammersley, Lisa. III. Title. QE28.2.P58 2010 551—dc22 2009017946 www.mhhe.com Dedicated to the memory of David McGeary Chapter 1 Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts 3 Chapter 2 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals 29 Chapter 3 Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks 55 Chapter 4 Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks 81 Chapter 5 Weathering and Soil 113 Chapter 6 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks 137 Chapter 7 Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks 169 Chapter 8 Time and Geology 193 Chapter 9 Mass Wasting 221 Chapter 10 Streams and Floods 247 Chapter 11 Ground Water 283 Chapter 12 Glaciers and Glaciation 307 Chapter 13 Deserts and Wind Action 339 Chapter 14 Waves, Beaches, and Coasts 361 Chapter 15 Geologic Structures 383 Chapter 16 Earthquakes 405 Chapter 17 Earth’s Interior and Geophysical Properties 437 Chapter 18 The Sea Floor 461 Chapter 19 Plate Tectonics 483 Chapter 20 Mountain Belts and the Continental Crust 519 Chapter 21 Resources 543 Chapter 22 The Earth’s Companions 573 vi Preface xiv The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron 36 Nonsilicate Minerals 41 Variations in Mineral Structures and Compositions 41 The Physical Properties of Minerals 41 Color 42 Streak 42 Luster 43 Hardness 43 External Crystal Form 44 Cleavage 46 1 Fracture 48 Specific Gravity 48 Introducing Geology, the Essentials Special Properties 48 of Plate Tectonics, and Other Chemical Tests 49 The Many Conditions of Mineral Formation 51 Important Concepts 3 SUMMARY 51 Who Needs Geology? 4 Supplying Things We Need 4 Protecting the Environment 5 Avoiding Geologic Hazards 5 Understanding Our Surroundings 11 Earth Systems 11 An Overview of Physical Geology—Important Concepts 13 Internal Processes: How the Earth’s Internal Heat Engine Works 13 Earth’s Interior 14 3 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 15 Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, Divergent Boundaries 15 Convergent Boundaries 18 and the Origin of Igneous Rocks 55 Transform Boundaries 20 Surficial Processes: The Earth’s External Heat Engine 20 Geologic Time 25 The Rock Cycle 56 A Plate Tectonic Example 57 SUMMARY 26 Igneous Rocks 58 Igneous Rock Textures 59 Identification of Igneous Rocks 59 Chemistry of Igneous Rocks 63 Intrusive Bodies 64 Shallow Intrusive Structures 64 Intrusives That Crystallize at Depth 66 Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic Rocks 67 How Magma Forms 68 Heat for Melting Rock 68 2 The Geothermal Gradient and Partial Melting 68 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals 29 Decompression Melting 68 Addition of Water 69 How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve 69 Minerals 30 Sequence of Crystallization and Melting 69 Introduction 30 Differentiation 70 Minerals and Rocks 31 Partial Melting 72 Atoms and Elements 32 Assimilation 72 Ions and Bonding 34 Mixing of Magmas 72 Crystalline Structures 35 vii viii CONTENTS Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics 73 Effects of Weathering 116 Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries 73 Mechanical Weathering 116 Intraplate Igneous Activity 74 Pressure Release 117 Igneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries 75 Frost Action 117 SUMMARY 77 Other Processes 118 Chemical Weathering 118 Role of Oxygen 119 Role of Acids 120 Solution Weathering 121 Chemical Weathering of Feldspar 122 Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals 123 Weathering Products 123 Factors Affecting Weathering 124 Soil 124 4 Soil Horizons 125 Factors Affecting Soil Formation 127 Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks 81 Soil Erosion 130 Soil Classification 131 Pyroclastic Debris and Lava Flows 82 SUMMARY 133 Living with Volcanoes 82 Supernatural Beliefs 82 The Growth of an Island 85 Geothermal Energy 85 Effect on Climate 85 Volcanic Catastrophes 85 Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava 88 Extrusive Rocks and Gases 90 Scientific Investigation of Volcanism 90 Gases 90 6 Extrusive Rocks 91 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks 137 Composition 91 Extrusive Textures 92 Sediment 138 Types of Volcanoes 95 Transportation 139 Shield Volcanoes 96 Deposition 140 Cinder Cones 96 Preservation 141 Composite Volcanoes 98 Lithification 141 Volcanic Domes 101 Types of Sedimentary Rocks 142 Lava Floods 101 Detrital Rocks 142 Submarine Eruptions 106 Breccia and Conglomerate 142 Pillow Basalts 106 Sandstone 143 SUMMARY 108 The Fine-Grained Rocks 143 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 146 Carbonate Rocks 146 Chert 150 Evaporites 150 Organic Sedimentary Rocks 152 Coal 152 The Origin of Oil and Gas 152 Sedimentary Structures 152 5 Fossils 155 Weathering and Soil 113 Formations 158 Interpretation of Sedimentary Rocks 159 Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation 114 Source Area 159 Environment of Deposition 160 Weathering and Earth Systems 114 Transgression and Regression 162 Atmosphere 114 Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks 162 Hydrosphere 114 SUMMARY 164 Biosphere 115 How Weathering changes Rocks 115 CONTENTS ix Combining Relative and Numerical Ages 212 Age of the Earth 213 Comprehending Geologic Time 214 SUMMARY 216 7 Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks 169 Introduction 170 Factors Controlling the Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks 171 9 Composition of the Parent Rock 172 Mass Wasting 221 Temperature 172 Pressure 173 Fluids 174 Introduction to Mass Wasting 222 Time 175 Classification of Mass Wasting 223 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 175 Rate of Movement 223 Nonfoliated Rocks 175 Type of Material 223 Foliated Rocks 177 Type of Movement 223 Types of Metamorphism 179 Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting 226 Contact Metamorphism 179 Gravity 226 Regional Metamorphism 179 Water 227 Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism 183 Triggers 228 Foliation and Plate Tectonics 183 Common Types of Mass Wasting 228 Pressure-Temperature Regimes 183 Creep 228 Hydrothermal Processes 185 Flow 230 Hydrothermal Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries 186 Rockfalls and Rockslides 234 Water at Convergent Boundaries 187 Underwater Landslides 237 Metasomatism 187 Preventing Landslides 242 Hydrothermal Rocks and Minerals 188 Preventing Mass Wasting of Soil 242 SUMMARY 190 Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on Highways 243 SUMMARY 244 10 8 Streams and Floods 247 Time and Geology 193 Earth Systems—The Hydrologic Cycle 248 The Key to the Past 194 Running Water 249 Relative Time 195 Drainage Basins 250 Principles Used to Determine Relative Age 195 Drainage Patterns 250 Unconformities 200 Correlation 202 Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition 251 The Standard Geologic Time Scale 205 Velocity 251 Numerical Age 205 Gradient 253 Isotopic Dating 206 Channel Shape and Roughness 253 Uses of Isotopic Dating 211 Discharge 253 x CONTENTS Stream Erosion 254 Stream Transportationof Sediment 255 Stream Deposition 257 Bars 257 Braided Streams 260 Meandering Streams and Point Bars 260 Flood Plains 261 Deltas 263 12 Alluvial Fans 267 Glaciers and Glaciation 307 Stream Valley Development 267 Downcutting and Base Level 267 The Concept of a Graded Stream 269 Introduction 308 Lateral Erosion 270 Glaciers—Where They Are, How They Form and Move 309 Headward Erosion 270 Distribution of Glaciers 309 Stream Terraces 270 Types of Glaciers 309 Incised Meanders 272 Formation and Growth of Glaciers 309 Flooding 272 Movement of Valley Glaciers 312 Urban Flooding 274 Movement of Ice Sheets 314 Flash Floods 274 Glacial Erosion 316 Controlling Floods 274 Erosional Landscapes Associated with Alpine Glaciation 317 The Midwest Floods of 1993 and 2008 278 Erosional Landscapes Associated with Continental Glaciation 321 SUMMARY 280 Glacial Deposition 322 Moraines 324 Outwash 326 Glacial Lakes and Varves 327 PAST GLACIATION 327 Direct Effects of Past Glaciation in North America 330 Indirect Effects of Past Glaciation 331 Evidence for Older Glaciation 334 SUMMARY 335 11 Ground Water 283 Introduction 284 Porosity and Permeability 284 The Water Table 285 The Movement of Ground Water 286 Aquifers 288 13 Wells 289 Deserts and Wind Action 339 Springs and Streams 290 Contamination of Ground Water 292 Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge 296 Distribution of Deserts 340 Effects of Groundwater Action 297 Some Characteristics of Deserts 341 Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst Topography 297 Desert Features in the Southwestern United States 344 Other Effects 299 Wind Action 349 Hot Water Underground 300 Wind Erosion and Transportation 349 Geothermal Energy 301 Wind Deposition 351 SUMMARY 303 SUMMARY 358
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