Photovoltaics: System Design and Practice

732 Pages·2012·24.352 MB·English

by  Heinrich Haberlin(auth.)

PHOTOVOLTAICS
PHOTOVOLTAICS
SYSTEM DESIGN AND PRACTICE
Heinrich Ha¨berlin
BerneUniversityofAppliedSciences,Switzerland
Translated by Herbert Eppel
HETranslations,Leicester,UK
Thiseditionfirstpublished2012
(cid:2)2012,JohnWiley&Sons,Ltd
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LibraryofCongressCataloguing-in-PublicationData
Ha¨berlin,Heinrich.
Photovoltaics:systemdesignandpractice/HeinrichHa¨berlin;translatedbyHerbertEppel.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-1-119-99285-1(cloth)
1. Photovoltaicpowersystems–Designandconstruction.2. Photovoltaicpowersystems–Standards.
3. Photovoltaicpowergeneration.I. Title.
TK1087.H332012
621.31’244–dc23
2011032983
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary.
PrintISBN:9781119992851
Setin9/11pt,TimesbyThomsonDigital,India
To my wife Ruth and my children Andreas and Kathrin, who, while I was writing
this book, weren’t able to spend as much time with me as they would have
liked – and to all those who want to see our society transition to sustainable
and responsible electricity generation.
Contents
Foreword xiii
Preface xv
AbouttheAuthor xvii
Acknowledgements xix
NoteontheExamplesandCosts xxi
ListofSymbols xxiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Photovoltaics–What’sItAllAbout? 1
1.2 OverviewofthisBook 10
1.3 ABriefGlossaryofKeyPVTerms 11
1.3.1 RelevantTerminologyRelatingtoMeteorology,AstronomyandGeometry 11
1.3.2 PVTerminology 13
1.4 RecommendedGuideValuesforEstimatingPVSystemPotential 14
1.4.1 SolarCellEfficiencyZ 14
PV
1.4.2 SolarModuleEfficiencyZ 14
M
1.4.3 EnergyEfficiency(UtilizationRatio,SystemEfficiency)Z 15
E
1.4.4 AnnualEnergyYieldperInstalledKilowattofPeakInstalledSolar
GeneratorCapacity 15
1.4.5 PVInstallationSpaceRequirements 17
1.4.6 CostperInstalledKilowattofPeakPower 17
1.4.7 Feed-inTariffs;Subsidies 18
1.4.8 WorldwideSolarCellProduction 20
1.4.9 InstalledPeakCapacity 21
1.4.10 TheOutlookforSolarCellProduction 22
1.5 Examples 24
1.6 Bibliography 25
2 KeyPropertiesofSolarRadiation 27
2.1 SunandEarth 27
2.1.1 SolarDeclination 27
2.1.2 TheApparentPathoftheSun 28
2.2 ExtraterrestrialRadiation 31
viii Contents
2.3 RadiationontheHorizontalPlaneoftheEarth’sSurface 32
2.3.1 IrradiatedEnergyHontheHorizontalPlaneoftheEarth’sSurface 34
2.4 SimpleMethodforCalculatingSolarRadiationonInclinedSurfaces 39
2.4.1 AnnualGlobalIrradiationFactors 44
2.4.2 ElementaryRadiationCalculationExamplesforInclinedSurfaces 47
2.5 RadiationCalculationonInclinedPlaneswithThree-ComponentModel 49
2.5.1 ComponentsofGlobalRadiationontheHorizontalPlane 49
2.5.2 RadiationReflectedofftheGround 50
2.5.3 TheThreeComponentsofRadiationonInclinedSurfaces 51
2.5.4 ApproximateAllowanceforShadingbytheHorizon 54
2.5.5 EffectofHorizonandFac¸ade/RoofEdgeElevationonDiffuseRadiation
(SkyandReflectedRadiation) 58
2.5.6 TotalEnergyIncidentonInclinedSurfaces(GenericCase) 62
2.5.7 RetrospectiveCalculationofIrradianceIncidentonInclinedSolar
Generators,UsingGlobalRadiationReadingsontheHorizontalPlane 63
2.5.8 ExamplesofRadiationCalculationswiththeThree-ComponentMethod 64
2.6 ApproximateAnnualEnergyYieldforGrid-ConnectedPVSystems 68
2.6.1 ExamplesforApproximateEnergyYieldCalculations 69
2.7 CompositionofSolarRadiation 69
2.8 SolarRadiationMeasurement 71
2.8.1 Pyranometers 71
2.8.2 ReferenceCells 71
2.8.3 PyranometerVersusReferenceCellMeasurements 73
2.9 Bibliography 76
3 SolarCells:TheirDesignEngineeringandOperatingPrinciples 79
3.1 TheInternalPhotoelectricEffectinSemiconductors 79
3.2 ABriefAccountofSemiconductorTheory 81
3.2.1 SemiconductorDoping 81
3.2.2 TheP–NJunction 83
3.2.3 CharacteristicCurvesofSemiconductorDiodes 85
3.3 TheSolarCell:ASpecializedSemiconductorDiodewithaLargeBarrierLayer
thatisExposedtoLight 86
3.3.1 StructureofaCrystallineSiliconSolarCell 86
3.3.2 EquivalentCircuitofaSolarCell 87
3.3.3 CharacteristicCurvesofSolarCells 89
3.4 SolarCellEfficiency 94
3.4.1 SpectralEfficiencyZ (ofSolarCellswithaSingleJunction) 94
S
3.4.2 TheoreticalEfficiencyZ (ofSolarCellswithaSingleJunction) 97
T
3.4.3 PracticalEfficiencyZ (ataJunction) 100
PV
3.4.4 EfficiencyOptimizationMethods 104
3.5 TheMostImportantTypesofSolarCellsandtheAttendantManufacturing
Methods 108
3.5.1 CrystallineSiliconSolarCells 108
3.5.2 GalliumArsenideSolarCells 111
3.5.3 Thin-FilmSolarCells 114
3.5.4 DyeSensitizedSolarCell(DSSC;PhotoelectrochemicalSolarCells,
Gra¨tzelSolarCells) 121
3.6 BifacialSolarCells 122
3.7 Examples 122
3.8 Bibliography 124
Contents ix
4 SolarModulesandSolarGenerators 127
4.1 SolarModules 127
4.2 PotentialSolarCellWiringProblems 138
4.2.1 CharacteristicCurvesofSolarCellsinallQuadrants 138
4.2.2 WiringSolarCellsinSeries 140
4.2.3 Parallel-ConnectedSolarCells 147
4.3 InterconnectionofSolarModulesandSolarGenerators 149
4.3.1 SeriesConnectionofSolarModulestoaString 149
4.3.2 Parallel-ConnectedSolarModules 152
4.3.3 SolarGeneratorswithParallel-ConnectedSeriesStrings 152
4.3.4 SolarGeneratorswithSolarModuleMatrixing 159
4.4 SolarGeneratorPowerLossResultingfromPartialShadingandMismatchLoss 160
4.4.1 PowerLossInducedbyModuleShading 160
4.4.2 MismatchLossAttributabletoManufacturingTolerances 163
4.4.3 MismatchLossAttributabletoStringInhomogeneity 166
4.5 SolarGeneratorStructure 166
4.5.1 SolarGeneratorMountingOptions 166
4.5.2 MountingSystems 176
4.5.3 ElectricalIntegrationofSolarGenerators 184
4.5.4 DCWiringPowerLoss 196
4.5.5 GroundingProblemsontheDCSide 198
4.5.6 StructureofLarger-ScaleSolarGenerators 199
4.5.7 SafetyProtectionAgainstTouchVoltage 201
4.5.8 FactorsthatReduceSolarGeneratorPowerYield 202
4.6 Examples 217
4.7 Bibliography 221
5 PVEnergySystems 223
5.1 Stand-alonePVSystems 223
5.1.1 PVSystemBatteries 225
5.1.2 StructureofStand-alonePVSystems 242
5.1.3 PVInstallationInverters 248
5.1.4 Stand-aloneInstallationDCAppliances 258
5.1.5 Stand-alone230VACPVInstallations 259
5.1.6 Stand-alonePVInstallationswithIntegratedACPowerBusses 259
5.2 Grid-ConnectedSystems 262
5.2.1 Grid-ConnectedOperation 262
5.2.2 DesignEngineeringandOperatingPrinciplesofPVSystemInverters 266
5.2.3 StandardsandRegulationsforGrid-ConnectedInverters 277
5.2.4 AvoidanceofIslandingandStand-aloneOperationinGridInverters 288
5.2.5 OperatingPerformanceandCharacteristicsofPVGridInverters 302
5.2.6 ProblemsthatOccurinGrid-ConnectedSystemsandPossible
Countermeasures 347
5.2.7 RegulationandStabilityProblemsinGridSystems 368
5.3 Bibliography 389
6 ProtectingPVInstallationsAgainstLightning 395
6.1 ProbabilityofDirectLightningStrikes 395
6.1.1 SpecimenCalculationfortheAnnualNumberofDirectLightning
StrikesN 397
D
x Contents
6.2 LightningStrikes:GuideValues;MainEffects 398
6.2.1 TypesofLightning 398
6.2.2 EffectsofLightning 399
6.2.3 LightningProtectionInstallationClassesandEfficiency 399
6.2.4 UseofApproximateSolutionsforLightningProtectionSizing 399
6.3 BasicprinciplesofLightningProtection 400
6.3.1 InternalandExternalLightningProtection 400
6.3.2 ProtectionZoneDeterminationUsingtheLightningSphereMethod 400
6.3.3 ProtectionZoneforLightningConductorsandLightningRods 401
6.3.4 LightningProtectionMeasuresforElectricityInstallations 402
6.4 ShuntingLightningCurrenttoaSeriesofDown-conductors 402
6.5 PotentialIncreases;EquipotentialBonding 404
6.5.1 EquipotentialBondingRealization 405
6.5.2 LightningCurrentinConductorsthatareIncorporatedintothe
EquipotentialBondingInstallation 405
6.5.3 LightningProtectionDevices 407
6.6 Lightning-Current-InducedVoltagesandCurrent 408
6.6.1 MutualInductanceandInducedVoltagesinaRectangularLoop 409
6.6.2 ProximityBetweenDown-conductorsandotherInstallations 413
6.6.3 InducedCurrent 415
6.6.4 VoltagesinLightning-Current-ConductingCylinders 429
6.7 PVInstallationLightningProtectionExperiments 432
6.7.1 Introduction 432
6.7.2 TheSurgeCurrentGenerator 432
6.7.3 TestApparatusforSolarModuleCharacteristicCurves 433
6.7.4 SolarCellandSolarModuleDamageInducedbySurgeCurrent 435
6.7.5 ImprovingModuleImmunitytoLightningCurrent 439
6.7.6 Mini-lightningConductorsforPVInstallations 440
6.7.7 MeasurementofInducedVoltageinIndividualModules 440
6.7.8 VoltageInducedinWiredSolarGenerators 450
6.7.9 ConclusionsDrawnfromtheTestResults 458
6.8 OptimalSizingofPVInstallationLightningProtectionDevices 459
6.8.1 SolarModuleMutualInductance 460
6.8.2 WiringMutualInductance 461
6.8.3 SpecimenCalculationforM andv inaWholeString 462
S max
6.8.4 EffectsofDistantLightningStrikes 463
6.9 RecommendationsforPVInstallationLightningProtection 470
6.9.1 PossibleProtectiveMeasures 470
6.9.2 ProtectionAgainstDistantLightningStrikes 471
6.9.3 ProtectionAgainstBothDistantandNearbyStrikes(uptoabout20m) 475
6.9.4 ProtectionAgainstDirectLightningStrikesonPVInstallations
andBuildings 476
6.9.5 LightningProtectionforLarge-ScaleGround-BasedPVInstallations 479
6.9.6 LightningProtectionforPVInstallationsonFlatRoofs 480
6.9.7 PVInstallationLightningProtectionasPrescribedbySwissLaw 481
6.10 RecapandConclusions 484
6.11 Bibliography 485
Contents xi
7 NormalizedRepresentationofEnergyandPowerofPVSystems 487
7.1 Introduction 487
7.2 NormalizedYields,LossesandPerformanceRatio 487
7.2.1 NormalizedYields 487
7.2.2 DefinitionofNormalizedLosses 490
7.2.3 PerformanceRatio 490
7.2.4 NewNormalizedValuesofMerit 491
7.3 NormalizedDiagramsforYieldsandLosses 491
7.3.1 NormalizedMonthlyandAnnualStatistics 491
7.3.2 NormalizedDailyStatisticsBrokenDownbyHours 495
7.4 NormalizedPVInstallationPowerOutput 495
7.4.1 NormalizedDailyDiagramwithInstantaneousValues 496
7.4.2 DerivationofDailyEnergyYieldfromNormalizedInstantaneousValues 497
7.4.3 DefinitionoftheCorrectionFactorsk ,k andofefficiencyn 497
G T I
7.4.4 AssessmentMethodsUsingNormalizedDailyDiagrams 497
7.4.5 SpecimenNormalizedDailyDiagrams 498
7.5 AnomalyDetectionUsingVariousTypesofDiagrams 502
7.6 RecapandConclusions 506
7.7 Bibliography 506
8 PVInstallationSizing 507
8.1 PrincipalofandBaselineValuesforYieldCalculations 507
8.1.1 InsolationCalculations 508
8.1.2 DeterminationoftheTemperatureCorrectionFactork 508
T
8.1.3 DefiningtheSolarGeneratorCorrectionFactork 513
G
8.2 EnergyYieldCalculationforGrid-ConnectedSystems 523
8.2.1 ExamplesofGrid-ConnectedSystemEnergyYield 525
8.3 SizingPVInstallationsthatIntegrateaBatteryBank 533
8.3.1 DeterminationofMeanDailyAppliancePowerConsumption 533
8.3.2 RequisiteBatteryCapacityK 534
8.3.3 SolarGeneratorSizing 535
8.3.4 Stand-aloneSystemSizingTables 538
8.3.5 SizingExercisesforStand-aloneInstallations 541
8.4 InsolationCalculationFreeware 549
8.4.1 PVGISSolarIrradiationData 550
8.4.2 TheEuropeanSatel-LightInsolationDatabase 550
8.5 SimulationSoftware 550
8.6 Bibliography 551
9 TheEconomicsofSolarPower 553
9.1 HowMuchDoesSolarEnergyCost? 553
9.1.1 ExamplesofMoreExactEnergyPriceCalculations 555
9.1.2 ComparisonofPVandConventionalElectricityCosts 557
9.1.3 PVElectricityPumpStorageSystemCosts 560
9.1.4 PVElectricityBatteryStorageCosts 562
9.2 GreyEnergy;EnergyPaybackTime;YieldFactor 562
9.3 Bibliography 566
10 PerformanceCharacteristicsofSelectedPVInstallations 569
10.1 EnergyYieldDataandOtherAspectsofSelectedPVInstallations 569
10.1.1 GfellerPVInstallationinBurgdorf,Switzerland 569
10.1.2 MontSoleilPVInstallationintheJuraMountains(Elevation1270m) 572
xii Contents
10.1.3 JungfraujochPVInstallation(Elevation:3454m) 579
10.1.4 BirgPVInstallation(Elevation:2670m) 585
10.1.5 StadedeSuissePVInstallationinBern 588
10.1.6 NewtechPVInstallationwithThin-FilmSolarCellModules 592
10.1.7 NeueMessePVInstallationinMunich,Germany 600
10.1.8 LeipzigerLandPVInstallation 603
10.1.9 BornaPVInstallationwithBiaxialSolarTrackers 607
10.1.10 ErlaseeSolarParkwithBiaxialSolarTrackers 607
10.1.11 GuadixPVInstallationinSouthernSpain,withBiaxialSolarTrackers 609
10.1.12 BiaxialSolarTrackerENEAPVInstallationnearNaples,Italy 609
10.1.13 PVInstallationinMudgee,Australia 611
10.1.14 PVInstallationinSpringerville,Arizona 612
10.2 Long-TermComparisonofFourSwissPVInstallations 614
10.3 Long-TermEnergyYieldoftheBurgdorfInstallation 617
10.4 MeanPVInstallationEnergyYieldinGermany 619
10.5 Bibliography 620
11 InConclusion... 623
AppendixA:CalculationTablesandInsolationData 633
A1 InsolationCalculationTables 633
A1.1 BasicInsolationCalculation 633
A1.2 InsolationCalculationUsingtheThree-ComponentModel 633
A2 AggregateMonthlyHorizontalGlobalInsolation 634
A3 GlobalInsolationforVariousReferenceLocations 634
A4 R FactorsforInsolationCalculationsUsingtheThree-ComponentModel 648
B
A5 ShadingDiagramsforVariousLatitudes 673
A6 EnergyYieldCalculationTables 676
A6.1 EnergyYieldCalculationTablesforGrid-ConnectedSystems 677
A6.2 Stand-aloneInstallationSizingTables 679
A7 k andk FiguresforEnergyYieldCalculations 681
T G
A7.1 k FiguresforVariousReferenceStations 682
T
A7.2 k FiguresforVariousReferenceStations 682
G
A8 InsolationandEnergyYieldCalculationMaps 683
A8.1 SpecimenPolarShadingDiagram 683
A8.2 InsolationMaps 683
A8.3 MapsforEstimatesofAnnualPVEnergyYieldinEuropeandEnvirons 689
AppendixB:Links;Books;Acronyms;etc. 691
B1 LinkstoPVWebSites 691
B1.1 Organizations 691
B1.2 GovernmentOrganizations 692
B1.3 ResearchOrganizations 692
B1.4 SpecializedJournals 692
B2 BooksonPhotovoltaicsandRelatedAreas 693
B3 Acronyms 695
B4 PrefixesforDecimalFractionsandMetricMultiples 696
B5 ConversionFactors 696
B6 KeyPhysicalConstants 696
Index 697