Photovoltaics for Rural Electrification in Developing Countries: A Road Map

253 Pages·2016·6.849 MB·English

by  Tania Urmee, David Harries, Hans-Gerhard Holtorf (auth.)

Green Energy and Technology
Tania Urmee
David Harries
Hans-Gerhard Holtorf
Photovoltaics for
Rural Electrification
in Developing
Countries
A Road Map
Green Energy and Technology
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8059
Tania Urmee David Harries
(cid:129)
Hans-Gerhard Holtorf
Photovoltaics for Rural
fi
Electri cation in Developing
Countries
A Road Map
123
TaniaUrmee Hans-Gerhard Holtorf
MurdochUniversity University of Oldenburg
Murdoch, WA Oldenburg
Australia Germany
DavidHarries
University of Western Australia
Crawley, WA
Australia
ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)
Green Energy andTechnology
ISBN978-3-319-03788-2 ISBN978-3-319-03789-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03789-9
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016939357
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Preface
…millionsofpeopleintheworld’spoorestcountriesremain
imprisoned,enslaved,andinchains.Theyaretrappedinthe
prisonofpoverty.Itistimetosetthemfree…
—NelsonMandela
Over 1 in 5 people living in the world today do not have access to electricity and
many more have access to only very limited amounts of electricity. In the main,
thesearepeoplewholiveinruralareasindevelopingcountries.Thatlackofaccess
to modern energy services means not only that these people have a low quality of
life, but also that they are not provided with basic services, such as healthcare and
education.Theyare caught inan energy poverty trap. Poverty results in having no
access to electricity, and they remain poor while they do not have access to elec-
tricity. That there is a moral, social and economic need for electrification pro-
grammestoprovidethesepeoplewithaccesstoelectricityinnotinquestion.What
isinquestionishowtodosoefficiently,costeffectivelyandwithoutaddingtothe
world’salreadyseriousenergy-relatedenvironmentalproblems.Theimportanceof
finding answers to this question is amplified by the fact that while many rural
electrification programmes based on the use of small-scale renewable energy sys-
temhavebeenimplementedoverthepastdecades,itislookinglikelythattherewill
be as many people in 2030 without access to power as there are today. If the
problem is going to be addressed, the number of rural electrification programmes
beingimplementedwillneedtobegreatlyincreasedandtheirscalesexpanded.We
willneedmoreandbiggerruralelectrificationprogrammes.Butthereisaproblem!
Many rural electrification programmes using renewable energy systems as an
alternativetoextendingthegridorusedieselgenerators.Thedegreetowhichthese
programmes havebeensuccessful intermsof asustained increaseinthe uptake of
renewable energy systems is not well documented. However, there is strong evi-
dence that while some of the rural electrification programmes that have been
implemented in developing countries to date have been highly successful, not all
have been. The problem is that before we invest in larger and bigger rural elec-
trification programmes, we need to be able to answer questions such as why some
v
vi Preface
oftheseprogrammeshavenotbeensuccessful,orhavenotbeensuccessfulasthey
could have or should have been, and how future programmes can be designed and
implemented in ways that result in greater success rates? And those are the ques-
tions that this book attempts to answer.
In attempting to answer these questions, the immediate paradox that we
encounteredwasthatseveralguidelinestoassistthosedesigningandimplementing
solar home system (SHS) programmes had been published and that the poor out-
comes of some SHS programmes were occurring despite the publication of those
guidelines.Forsomereasonorreasons,thepublicationofthoseguidelineshadnot
appearedtohaveeffectivelyremediedtheproblemsthattheyhadsoughttoaddress.
Ourstartingpoint,therefore,wasthatwritingyetanothersetoftechnicalguidelines
was not the solution. What was needed was a better understanding of the causes
behind the failures of limited success of many of these programmes, and con-
versely, the relative success of others is required. And that is exactly what we set
out to do.
Todoso,weundertookacomprehensivereviewoftheliterature andthen went
on to undertake our own SHS programme case study reviews and surveys, and
thirdly, we interviewed SHS programme designers and implementers. These
strategieswereusedtogatherandtopulltogethersufficientdataandinformationto
beabletounderstandthefullsuiteofrelevantfactorsthatcanhaveaninfluenceon
theoutcomeofaSHSprogrammeandtounderstandwhatworksandwhatdoesnot
work,andthereasonsthattheyworkordo notwork.Theresultofthisworkisthe
comprehensivesetofissuesthatneedtobeconsideredineachofthestepsthatare
essential to the design and implementation of a successful SHS programme.
Theendresultisadetailedroadmaptoguidethosedesigningandimplementing
ruralelectrificationprojectsindevelopingcountriesusingsolarPV.Itincludescase
studies derived from our own personal participation in and observations of Solar
Home Systems, their impacts, their advantages and disadvantages and their oper-
ation. The road map provides a comprehensive list of all of the factors that we
concluded need to be considered in developing and implementing a SHS pro-
gramme. It is a road map because rural electrification programmes are not simple,
butarecomplex.Theissuesthatneedtobeconsideredarelarge,andthecontextsin
which they aredevelopedand implementedvaryenormously.It therefore doesnot
attempt to provide a list that needs to be rigidly applied or followed, but a way or
map to help navigate through the complexities. We have attempted to provide a
road map that can be utilised to help in designing and implementing a SHS pro-
gramme to ensure that the programme will be as successful and as sustainable as
possible within the particular context in which it is implemented.
Tania Urmee
David Harries
Acknowledgements
Asalways,abooksuchasthisinvolvesatremendousamountofworkandtimeand
couldnothavebeenwrittenwithouttheassistanceofmany.Inthiscase,thenumber
is too large to be named individually here. Those from our professional and aca-
demic networks have assisted directly, while many others have assisted indirectly
by sharing their experiences and knowledge. We met many in rural areas. They
hosted us and they shared their real-life problems on the ground of non-electrified
areas. We greatly appreciated the assistance and acknowledge the support of all.
Without that assistance, advice and input completing this project would not have
been possible.
We would also like to acknowledge our families who have provided moral
support and as always bore the greatest sacrifice by foregoing time that we should
have spent with them.
We would also like to thank Hanse-Wissenschaftskolleg at Delmenhorst in
GermanywholentgreatsupporttothisprojectbyprovidingafellowshipforTania
Urmee.
We dedicate this book to those who currently do not share the advantages of
modernelectricityservices—approximately20%ofthoselivingintheworld—and
tothosewhoareinvestingtheirtimeandefforttochangethat.Ourhopeisthatthis
project contributes to the successful implementation of Solar Home System pro-
grammessothatthispartofworld’spopulationasrapidlyaspossibleobtainsaccess
to electricity and all of the benefits that come with that.
Finally, we have put much effort in editing this book, but inevitably like all
thingsinlife—includingSHSprogrammes—errors andflawcansneakinandthen
be missed. If any of those errors give rise to misinterpretations, we take full
responsibility.
Tania Urmee
David Harries
Hans-Gerhard Holtorf
vii
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Why are Rural Electrification Programmes Needed?. . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Nexus Between Poverty and Lack of Access
to Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Rural Electrification Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Rural Electrification Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Dimensions of Electricity Access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Electrification Using Renewable Energy Technologies . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Why is a Rural Electrification Road Map Needed?. . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7.1 Successful Versus Sustainable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7.2 Target Groups of Rural Electrification Programmes . . . . 13
1.8 Outline of the Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Solar Home Systems—A Description of the Technology
and Its Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Set-up of a Solar Home System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 PV Modules and Arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Energy Storage of the Solar Home System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.1 Lead–Acid Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4 Battery Charge Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.2 Miscellaneous Requirements of Battery Charge
Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5 DC–DC Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6 Balance-of-System Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.7 Inverters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.8 Appliances for Use in Solar Home Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.9 Operation and Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
ix
x Contents
2.10 Sizing of Solar Home Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.10.1 Determination of the Energy Demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.10.2 PV Modules Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.10.3 Battery Sizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.10.4 Battery Charge Controller Sizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.11 Standards for Solar Home Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.12 The Market Chain and Key-Stakeholders for Solar Home
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.13 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3 Overview of Financing Mechanisms for Solar Home Systems
in Developing Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1 The Cost of SHSs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Why is Financing Important for SHS Programmes?. . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 Types of Financing Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.3.1 Cash Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.3.2 Subsidies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3.3 Direct Subsidy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3.4 Fee-for-Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3.5 Credit Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4 Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4.1 Cash Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4.2 Subsidised Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4.3 End-User Credit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.4.4 Hire Purchase Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.4.5 Microfinance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4 Success and Sustainability Criteria and Issues for SHS
Programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.1 Status of Solar Electrification Programme in Asia, Pacific
and African Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.1.1 Status of Solar Electrification in Asia
and the Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.1.2 Status of Solar Electrification in Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2 Lessons Learned from Solar PV Electrification Programmes . . . . 87
4.3 Solar PV Programme Success Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3.1 Programme Success Criteria and Its Indicators
for Solar PV Programmes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4 Challenges for Success Measurement and Weighting
the Success Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103