Photodetectors : materials, devices and applications PDF
Preview Photodetectors : materials, devices and applications
Photodetectors Related titles Optofluidics,sensorsandactuatorsinmicrostructuredopticalfibres (ISBN978-1-78242-329-4) Nanosensorsforchemicalandbiologicalapplications (ISBN978-0-85709-660-9) Carbonnanotubesandgrapheneforphotonicapplications (ISBN978-0-85709-417-9) Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials: Number 84 Photodetectors Materials, Devices and Applications Edited by Bahram Nabet AMSTERDAM(cid:1)BOSTON(cid:1)CAMBRIDGE(cid:1)HEIDELBERG LONDON(cid:1)NEWYORK(cid:1)OXFORD(cid:1)PARIS(cid:1)SANDIEGO SANFRANCISCO(cid:1)SINGAPORE(cid:1)SYDNEY(cid:1)TOKYO WoodheadPublishingisanimprintofElsevier WoodheadPublishingisanimprintofElsevier 80HighStreet,Sawston,Cambridge,CB223HJ,UK 225WymanStreet,Waltham,MA02451,USA LangfordLane,Kidlington,OX51GB,UK Copyright©2016ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmitted inanyformorbyanymeanselectronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher. PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&TechnologyRights DepartmentinOxford,UK:phone(144)(0)1865843830;fax(144)(0)1865853333; email:[email protected],youcansubmityourrequestonline byvisitingtheElsevierwebsiteathttp://elsevier.com/locate/permissions,andselecting ObtainingpermissiontouseElseviermaterial. Notice Noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublisherforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersons orpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromany useoroperationofanymethods,products,instructionsorideascontainedinthe materialherein. Becauseofrapidadvancesinthemedicalsciences,inparticular,independentverification ofdiagnosesanddrugdosagesshouldbemade. BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2015942017 ISBN:978-1-78242-445-1(print) ISBN:978-1-78242-468-0(online) ForInformationonallWoodheadPublishing visitourwebsiteathttp://store.elsevier.com/ Coverart:Confocalmicroscopeimageofatop-illuminatedphotodetectorincorporating electronandholechargereservoirsanditstimeresponse.ProducedbyBahramNabetand MarcCurrie Dedication To: Zohreh,Behnam,Barzin,andBardia List of Contributors Arash Ahmadivand Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida InternationalUniversity,Miami,FL,USA John E. Bowers Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University ofCalifornia SantaBarbara,SantaBarbara,CA,USA Mario Caironi Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto ItalianodiTecnologia,Milano,Italy Francisco Castro Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Drexel University,Philadelphia,PA,USA Marc Currie Optical Sciences Division, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC,USA M. Jamal Deen Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, McMaster University,Hamilton,ON,Canada Pouya Dianat Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Drexel University,Philadelphia,PA,USA Nicoleta Dinu National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), National Institute of Nuclear and Particles Physics (IN2P3), Laboratory of Linear Accelerator (LAL), France Daniel Durini Forschungszentrum Ju¨lich GmbH, Central Institute of Engineering, ElectronicsandAnalyticsZEA-2(cid:1)Electronic Systems,Ju¨lich,Germany Yasser El-Batawy Department of Engineering Mathematics and Physics, Faculty ofEngineering,CairoUniversity,Giza,Egypt Hakan Karaagac Integrated Nanodevices and Nanosystems Research, Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; Physics Department, Faculty of Science and Letters, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul,Turkey xii ListofContributors Mustafa Karabiyik Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida InternationalUniversity,Miami,FL,USA Serkan Kaya Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida InternationalUniversity,Miami,FL,USA Guo-Qiang Lo Institute of Microelectronics, The Agency for Science, Technology andResearch(A*STAR),Singapore Farseem M. Mohammedy Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, BangladeshUniversityofEngineeringandTechnology,Dhaka,Bangladesh Bahram Nabet Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Drexel University,Philadelphia,PA,USA Tadao Nagatsuma Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Osaka,Japan Dario Natali Dipartimento di Elettronica, Informazione e Bioingegneria, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy; Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi,IstitutoItalianodiTecnologia,Milano,Italy Matthew M. Ombaba Integrated Nanodevices and Nanosystems Research, ElectricalandComputerEngineering,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA,USA Nezih Pala Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida InternationalUniversity,Miami,FL,USA Uwe Paschen Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits and Systems, Duisburg,Germany Molly Piels Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of CaliforniaSantaBarbara,SantaBarbara,CA,USA KazimG.Polat IntegratedNanodevicesandNanosystemsResearch,Electricaland ComputerEngineering,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA,USA M. Saif Islam Integrated Nanodevices and Nanosystems Research, Electrical and ComputerEngineering,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,CA,USA Alexander Schwinger Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits and Systems,Duisburg,Germany Amro Anwar Seddik Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Drexel University,Philadelphia,PA,USA ListofContributors xiii Y.-W.Song KoreaInstituteofScienceandTechnology(KIST),Seoul,SouthKorea Andreas Spickermann Fraunhofer Institute for Microelectronic Circuits and Systems,Duisburg,Germany Xia Zhao Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Drexel University, Philadelphia,PA,USA Shiyang Zhu Institute of Microelectronics, The Agency for Science, Technology andResearch(A*STAR),Singapore Preface UNESCO has declared 2015 to be the international year of light. The National Research Council (NRC) took note of this designation in an important report in August 20121 stating that: “Optics and photonics technologies are central (our emphasis) to modern life.” The carefully chosen word “central” is not a hyperbole; the incandescent light bulb extended the daylight and made the transition from an agrarian to industrial society possible in the early 1800s. As the Nobel Committee noted in 2014: “Incandescent light bulbs lit the 20th century; the 21st century will be lit by LED lamps” justifying the award of a Nobel Prize to the inventors of blue LED for itsimmensesocietal impact,affecting the quality oflife ofover 1.5 billion people.2 The NRC report foreshadows this award: “(Solar power generation and) new efficient lighting, for example, could transform the (global) energy landscape.” The impact of this transformation is tremendous given that presently one-quarter of theworld’s energygoestolighting.2,3Thesamereportacknowledgesthatitistech- nically possible to meet all of the United States’ energy needs by harnessing solar energy. As important aslighting and energy generation are, they only representa portion of the reach of photonic technologies; photonics is an essential engine of the infor- mation age, supporting the exponential growth of the internet. As Charles Kao’s noted in his 2009 Nobel Prize Lecture awarded for his work in optical fiber com- munications,4 “the work (on fiber optics) has fundamentally transformed the way we live our daily lives.” While here Kao mentions communication of information, together with storage and computation they form a “grand challenge” of the infor- mationage.Infact,thecyber-infrastructurehasbecomeasimportantasthephysical one.Forexampledata centerscurrentlyconsume1.5%ofglobal energyproduction, and up to approximately 4% of the United States’, energy produced. Though pres- ently small,a1000timesincreaseinthevolume ofdataispredictedby2025,while computing efficiency will increase 25 times in the same period.5 Photonics has a keyroleinmeeting thisgrand challenge, butitneeds tobeintegratedwithelectron- ics, which is silicon based. In order to achieve energy efficient computing, for 1NationalResearchCouncil,OpticsandPhotonics:EssentialTechnologiesforourNation.TheNational AcademiesPress,Washington,DC,ISBN0-309-26337-8. 2http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2014/popular-physicsprize2014.pdf. 3Zheludev,N.,2007.ThelifeandtimesoftheLED(cid:1)a100-yearhistory.Nat.Photonics1. 4Kao,C.K.,2009.SandfromCenturiesPast:SendFutureVoicesFast.NobelLecture.http://www.nobel- prize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2009/kao_lecture.pdf. 5Hilbert,M.,Lopez,P., 2011.Theworld’stechnologicalcapacity tostore,communicate,andcompute information.Science332(6025),60(cid:1)65. xvi Preface systems from datacenters down to mobile electronics, novel devices, techniques, and methodologies are necessary to reduce the terawatts of power consumed by computationaldevicesthataretheenginesoftheinformationage.6 This book covers an important device in this chain, namely, the photodetector (PD)whichtransferstheinformationcarriedbyphotonstoelectrons.Itisthennatu- ral to start with optical detectors heterogeneously integrated with silicon photonics. The next chapter addresses the limitations of transit time and energy requirements in high speed PDs, offering a design in which these charge transport limitations may be circumvented using confined two-dimensional electron and hole gasses. This is followed by two- and one-dimensional graphene and carbon nanotube, respectively, photonic devices in Chapter 3, with the following chapter expanding on the 1D theme with a review of nanowire enabled photodetection schemes which include CMOS compatible mass-manufacturable device fabrication. Chapter 5 reviewslow-temperaturegrownGaAs(LT-GaAs)deviceswiththeirultrahighspeed response, which can be used in THz emitters and receivers; a hybrid LT/Regular temperature GaAs PD is demonstrated that achieves both high speed and high effi- ciency. Chapter 6 is a comprehensive review of the optical and electrical properties of plasmonic PDs in the spectral range of UV to the near infrared (NIR). Organic PD’s are part of the emerging organic optoelectronics. Chapter 7 reviews this field with emphasis given to devices completely developed by means of scalable, solution-based processes addressing integrated transceivers and imagers. Silicon photomultipliertubesarediscussedinthenextchapter. Part two of the book concentrates on applications of PDs. Chapter 9 covers high frequency microwave, millimeter-wave (MMW) and terahertz (THz) photonics, which covers electromagnetic regions from 100GHz to 10THz, focusing on PDs employed in wireless communications, spectroscopy, electric-field measurements, and imaging. The next chapter discusses the key building blocks for silicon inte- grated photonic circuits for communication applications operating in the telecom spectral band of 1.3(cid:1)1.6µm. Silicon based single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) technology is used for low-light and high-speed applications as reviewed in Chapter 11; near single-photon counting and time responses in nanosecond or sub- nanosecondregions arereported.Thenextchapter summarizesthe operation princi- ples and the current state of the art of THz detectors in both pulsed time domain (PTD) and continuous wave (CW) modalities. A comprehensive review and analy- sis of resonant cavity enhanced (RCE) PDs is offered in Chapter 13. Finally, a novel photodetection scheme is described in Chapter 14 in which the exchange and correlation energy terms that are associated with the quantum mechanical many-body interactions ofa2D charge systemare manipulated throughlight gener- atedcarriersresultinginagiantenhancementincapacitance. I am very grateful to the contributors who shared their considerable expertise despite much demand on their time, and whose collective work has resulted in a 6Miller,D.A.B.,2009.Devicerequirementsforopticalinterconnectstosiliconchips.In:Proc.IEEE97, pp.1166(cid:1)1185.Asghari,M.,Krishnamoorthy,A.V.,2011.Siliconphotonics:energyefficientcommu- nication.Nat.Photonics5,268(cid:1)270.
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