Philosophical terms dictionary

21 Pages·2013·0.27 MB·English

Philosophical terms dictionary

The Absolute is the concept of an unconditional reality which transcends limited,
conditional, everyday existence. It is often used as an alternate term for "God" or
"the Divine", especially, but by no means exclusively, by those who feel that the
term "God" lends itself too easily to anthropomorphic presumptions. The concept
of The Absolute may or may not (depending on one's specific doctrine) possess
discrete will, intelligence, awareness or even a personal nature. It contrasts with
finite things, considered individually, and known collectively as the relative.

Agnosticism (Greek: α- a-, without + γνώσις gnōsis, knowledge; after Gnosticism)
is the philosophical view that the truth value of certain claims — particularly
metaphysical claims regarding theology, afterlife or the existence of deities, ghosts,
or even ultimate reality — is unknown or, depending on the form of agnosticism,
inherently impossible to prove or disprove. It is often put forth as a middle ground
between theism and atheism[1], though it is not a religious declaration in itself.
Agnosticism does not preclude religious belief; that is to say, an agnostic must be a
theist or an atheist, but can be 'agnostically' so.
Demographic research services normally list agnostics in the same category as
atheists and/or non-religious people,[2] using 'agnostic' in the sense of
'noncommittal'.[3][dubious – discuss] However, this can be misleading given the
existence of agnostic theists, who identify themselves as both agnostics in the
original sense and followers of a particular religion. Some authors assert that it is
possible to be both an atheist and an agnostic[4] and some nontheists self-identify
as agnostic atheists.
Philosophers and thinkers who have written about agnosticism include Thomas
Henry Huxley, Albert Einstein, Robert G. Ingersoll, and Bertrand Russell.
Religious scholars who wrote about agnosticism are Peter Kreeft, Blaise Pascal
and Joseph Ratzinger, later elected as Pope Benedict XVI.

Analysis (from Greek ἀνάλυσις, "a breaking up") is the process of breaking a
complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it.
The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before
Aristotle, though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.
As a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to Ibn al-Haytham,[1]
René Descartes (Discourse on the Method) and Galileo Galilei. It has also been
ascribed to Isaac Newton, in the form of a practical method of physical discovery
(which he did not name or formally describe).
Analogy is both the cognitive process of transferring information from a particular
subject (the analogue or source) to another particular subject (the target), and a
linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. In a narrower sense, analogy
is an inference or an argument from one particular to another particular, as opposed
to deduction, induction, and abduction, where at least one of the premises or the
conclusion is general. The word analogy can also refer to the relation between the
source and the target themselves, which is often, though not necessarily, a
similarity, as in the biological notion of analogy.

Antinomy (Greek αντι-, against, plus νομος, law) literally means the mutual
incompatibility, real or apparent, of two laws. It is a term used in logic and
epistemology.
The term acquired a special significance in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, who
used it to describe the equally rational but contradictory results of applying to the
universe of pure thought the categories or criteria of reason proper to the universe
of sensible perception or experience (phenomena). Empirical reason cannot here
play the role of establishing rational truths because it goes beyond possible
experience and is applied to the sphere of that which transcends it.

Anthropology (/ˌænθ ɹəˈ pɒlədʒi/, from Greek ἄνθρωπος, anthrōpos, "human";
and -λογία, -logia) [1] is the study of the man and the humanity in its totality.
Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, and the humanities.[2] In Great
Britain it was originally divided into physical anthropology and cultural
anthropology, which itself was divided into archaeology, technology, ethnology
(the comparative study of different peoples, focusing on material culture, language,
religion and other social institutions) and sociology (the comparative study of
social phenomena).[3] In the United States anthropology traditionally has been
comprised of four fields: physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistics and
cultural anthropology. Today, in Britain, Archaeology and Sociology are generally
taught as separate subjects, and ethnology was renamed social anthropology and
emerged as the leading focus of anthropology. Anthropology in other countries
generally follows one or both of these models

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely human characteristics to non-
human creatures and beings, natural and supernatural phenomena, material states
and objects or abstract concepts. Subjects for anthropomorphism commonly
include animals and plants depicted as creatures with human motivation able to
reason and converse, forces of nature such as winds or the sun, components in
games, unseen or unknown sources of chance, etc. Almost anything can be subject
to anthropomorphism. The term derives from a combination of the Greek
ἄνθρωπος (ánthrōpos), "human" and μορφή (morphē), "shape" or "form".

Anthropocentrism (from Greek: άνθρωπος, anthropos, "human being"; and
κέντρον, kentron, "center") is the belief that humans must be considered at the
center of, and above any other aspect of, reality.[1] This concept is sometimes
known as humanocentrism or human supremacy.

Apologists are authors, writers, editors of scientific logs or academic journals, and
leaders known for taking on the points in arguments, conflicts or positions that are
either placed under popular scrutinies or viewed under persecutory examinations.
The term comes from the Greek word apologia (απολογία), meaning a speaking in
defence.

Aporia (Ancient Greek: ἀπορία: impasse; lack of resources; puzzlement;
embarrassment ) denotes, in philosophy, a philosophical puzzle or state of
puzzlement, and, in rhetoric, a rhetorically useful expression of doubt

In the ancient Greek philosophy, arche (ἀρχή) is the beginning or the first
principle of the world. The idea of an arche was first philosophized by Thales of
Miletus, who claimed that the first principle of all things is water. His theory was
supported by the observation of moisture throughout the world and coincided with
his theory that the earth floated on water.

Atheism, as an explicit position, can be either the assertion that there are no
deities,[1] or the rejection of theism.[2] It is also[3] defined more broadly as an
absence of belief in deities, or nontheism.[4]
Many self-described atheists are skeptical of all supernatural beings and cite a lack
of empirical evidence for the existence of deities. Others argue for atheism on
philosophical, social or historical grounds. Although many self-described atheists
tend toward secular philosophies such as humanism[5] and naturalism,[6] there is
no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere;[7] and some
religions, such as Jainism and Buddhism, do not require belief in a personal god.

Atman may refer to a concept in several Indian religious traditions, including
Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism:
• Atman (Hinduism)
• Atman (Buddhism)

The atom is a basic unit of matter consisting of a dense, central nucleus
surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus
contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons
(except in the case of Hydrogen-1, which is the only stable isotope with no
neutron). The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic
force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain bound to each other, forming a
molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is
electrically neutral, otherwise it has a positive or negative charge and is an ion. An
atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus:
the number of protons determines the chemical element, and the number of
neutrons determine the isotope of the element.

Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices considered by most to be a religion
and is based on the teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known
as "The Buddha" (the Awakened One), who was born in what is today Nepal.He
lived and taught in the northeastern region of the Indian subcontinent and likely
died around 400 BCE.
Buddhists recognize him as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help
sentient beings end their suffering by understanding the true nature of phenomena,
thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth (saṃsāra), that is, achieving
Nirvana. Among the methods various schools of Buddhism apply towards this goal
are: ethical conduct and altruistic behaviour, devotional practices, ceremonies and
the invocation of bodhisattvas, renunciation of worldly matters, meditation,
physical exercises, study, and the cultivation of wisdom.

Brahmin (Brāhmaṇa, ) is the class of educators, law makers, scholars and
preachers of Dharma in Hinduism. It is said to occupy the highest position among
the four varnas of Hinduism.
The English word brahmin is an anglicised form of the Sanskrit word Brāhmana
(Brāhman also refers to a sanskrit word Brahma- meaning 'knowledge', Brahman
(noun form) who possesses the 'knowledge.' Brahmins are also called Vipra
"learned",or Dvija "twice-born".

Faith is the confident belief in the truth of or trustworthiness of a person, idea, or
thing.[1] It is also used for a belief, characteristically without proof.[2] Informal
usage of the word "faith" can be quite broad, and may be used standardly in place
of "trust", "belief", or "hope". For example, the word "faith" can refer to a religion
itself or to religion in general. As with "trust", faith involves a concept of future
events or outcomes.
The English word faith is dated from 1200–50, from the Latin fidem, or fidēs,
meaning trust, akin to fīdere to trust.[3]
Faith is often used in a religious context, as in theology, where it almost
universally refers to a trusting belief in a transcendent reality, or else in a Supreme
Being and said being's role in the order of transcendent, spiritual things. In
Christianity it derives from the Greek pistis or root word peitho, meaning to trust,
to have confidence, faithfulness, reliable, to assure.[4] In the Jewish scriptures it
refers to how God acts toward His people and how they are to respond to him:[5]

Vitalism, as defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary,[1] is
a doctrine that the functions of a living organism are due to a vital principle
distinct from biochemical reactions
a doctrine that the processes of life are not explicable by the laws of physics
and chemistry alone and that life is in some part self-determining
Where vitalism explicitly invokes a vital principle, that element is often referred to
as the "vital spark," "energy" or "élan vital," which some equate with the "soul."
Vitalism has a long history in medical philosophies: most traditional healing
practices posited that disease was the result of some imbalance in the vital energies
which distinguish living from non-living matter. In the Western tradition founded
by Hippocrates, these vital forces were associated with the four temperaments and
humours; Eastern traditions posited similar forces such as qi and prana. Vitalistic
thinking has also been identified in the naive biological theories of children.[2]

Voluntaryism the philosophical position that the only legitimate interactions
between and among people are those freely assented to by all parties concerned

Will or willpower, is a philosophical concept that is defined in several different
ways

Hedonism is a type of philosophy for that the pleasure is an ultimate importance
and the most important pursuit for the man. The name derives from the Greek word
for "delight" (ήδονισμός hēdonismos from ήδονή hēdonē "pleasure", a cognate of
English sweet + suffix ισμός ismos "ism").

A genius is an individual who successfully applies a previously unknown
technique in the production of a work of art, science or calculation, or who masters
and personalizes a known technique. A genius typically possesses great
intelligence or remarkable abilities in a specific subject, or shows an exceptional
natural capacity of intellect and/or ability, especially in the production of creative
and original work, something that has never been seen or evaluated previously.
Traits often associated with genius include strong individuality, imagination,
uniqueness, and innovative drive[citation needed].
The term may be applied to someone who is considered gifted in many subjects[1]
or in one subject.

A hypothesis (from Greek ὑπόθεσις) consists either of a suggested explanation for
an observable phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal predicting a possible causal
correlation among multiple phenomena. The term derives from the Greek,
hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose." The scientific method
requires that one can test a scientific hypothesis. Scientists generally base such
hypotheses on previous observations or on extensions of scientific theories. Even
though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously in
common and informal usage, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific
theory. A Hypothesis is never to be stated as a question, but always as a statement
with an explanation following it. It is not to be a question because it states what
he/she thinks or believes will occur.

The term gnosiology (μελέτη της γνώσης) is derived from the Greek words gnosis
('knowledge', γνώση) and logos ('word' or 'discourse', λόγος). Linguistically, one
might compare it to epistemology, which is derived from the Greek words episteme
('knowledge') and logos (idea). As a philosophical concept, gnosiology broadly
means the theory of knowledge, which in ancient Greek philosophy was perceived
as a combination of sensory perception and intellect and then made into memory.
Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and
worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing
to universal human qualities, particularly rationality, without resorting to the
supernatural or alleged divine authority from religious texts.[1][2] It is a
component of a variety of more specific philosophical systems. Humanism can be
considered as a process by which truth and morality is sought through human
investigation and as such views on morals can change when new knowledge and
information is discovered. In focusing on the capacity for self-determination,
humanism rejects transcendental justifications, such as a dependence on belief
without reason, the supernatural, or texts of allegedly divine origin. Humanists
endorse universal morality based on the commonality of the human condition,
suggesting that solutions to human social and cultural problems cannot be
parochial.[3]

Darwinism is a term used for various movements or concepts related to ideas of
transmutation of species or evolution, including ideas with no connection to the
work of Charles Darwin. The meaning of Darwinism has changed over time, and
varies depending on who is using the term.[4]

Deduction can refer to one of the following usages:
• Deductive reasoning, inference in which the conclusion is of no greater
generality than the premises

Deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek δέον, deon, "obligation, duty";
and -λογία, -logia) is an approach to ethics that focuses on the rightness or
wrongness of intentions or motives behind action such as respect for rights, duties,
or principles, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of
those actions.[1]
It is sometimes described as "duty" or "obligation" based ethics, because
deontologists believe that ethical rules "bind you to your duty".[2] The term
'deontological' was first used in this way in 1930, in C. D. Broad's book, Five
Types of Ethical Theory.

Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human
cognition and behavior, decision and action, is causally determined by an unbroken
chain of prior occurrences.[1] With numerous historical debates, many varieties
and philosophical positions on the subject of determinism exist from traditions
throughout the world.
Dialectic (also called dialectics or the dialectical method) is a method of argument,
which has been central to both Eastern and Western philosophy since ancient
times. The word "dialectic" originates in Ancient Greece, and was made popular
by Plato's Socratic dialogues. Dialectic is rooted in the ordinary practice of a
dialogue between two people, each of whom holds different ideas and wishes to
persuade the other. The presupposition of a dialectical argument is that the
participants share at least some meanings and principles of inference in common,
even if they do not agree. Different forms of dialectical reason have emerged in the
East and in the West, as well as during different eras of history (see below).
Among the major forms of dialectic reason are Hindu, Buddhist, Socratic,
Medieval, Hegelian, Marxist, and Talmudic.

A dialogue is a conversation between two or more people. It is also a literary form
in which two or more parties engage in a discussion.

Dogma is the established belief or doctrine held by a religion, ideology or any kind
of organization: it is authoritative and not to be disputed, doubted or diverged
from. The term derives from Greek δόγμα "that which seems to one, opinion or
belief"[1] and that from δοκέω (dokeo), "to think, to suppose, to imagine"[2]. The
plural is either dogmas or dogmata , from Greek δόγματα.

The English word "spirit" comes from the Latin "spiritus" (breath). The term is
commonly used to refer to a supernatural being which is transcendent and therefore
metaphysical in nature. For many people, however, spirit, like soul, is a natural
part of a being, and is identified with mind, or consciousness, or the brain

In many religions and parts of philosophy, the soul is the immaterial part of a
person. It is usually thought to consist of one's thoughts and personality, and can be
synonymous with the spirit, mind or self.[1] In theology, the soul is often believed
to live on after the person’s death, and some religions posit that God creates souls.
In some cultures, non-human living things, and sometimes inanimate objects are
said to have souls, a belief known as animism.[2]
The terms soul and spirit are often used interchangeably, although the former may
be viewed as a more worldly and less transcendent aspect of a person than the
latter.[3] The words soul and psyche can also be treated synonymously, although
psyche has relatively more physical connotations, whereas soul is connected more
closely to metaphysics and religion.[4]

Heuristic (hyu-ˈris -tik) is an adjective for methods that help in problem solving,
in turn leading to learning and discovery. These methods in most cases employ
experimentation and trial-and-error techniques. A heuristic method is particularly
used to rapidly come to a solution that is reasonably close to the best possible
answer, or 'optimal solution'. Heuristics are "rules of thumb", educated guesses,
intuitive judgments or simply common sense.

In the scientific kumquat inquiry, an experiment (Latin: ex- periri, "to try out") is
a method of investigating causal relationships among variables. An experiment is a
cornerstone of the empirical approach to acquiring data about the world and is used
in both natural sciences and social sciences. An experiment can be used to help
solve practical problems and to support or negate theoretical assumptions.

In philosophy, empiricism is a theory of knowledge which asserts that knowledge
arises from experience. Empiricism is one of several competing views about how
we know "things," part of the branch of philosophy called epistemology, or "theory
of knowledge". Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence,
especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, while discounting the
notion of innate ideas (except in so far as these might be inferred from empirical
reasoning, as in the case of genetic predisposition).[1]
In the philosophy of science, empiricism emphasizes those aspects of scientific
knowledge that are closely related to evidence, especially as discovered in
experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses
and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world, rather than
resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation. Hence, science is
considered to be methodologically empirical in nature

Aesthetics or esthetics (also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study
of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment
and taste.[1] More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as "critical
reflection on art, culture and nature."[2][3] Aesthetics is a subdiscipline of
axiology, a branch of philosophy, and is closely associated with the philosophy of
art.[4] Aesthetics studies new ways of seeing and of perceiving the world.[5]

Ethics is the major branch of philosophy that encompasses proper conduct and
good living. It is significantly broader than the common conception of ethics as the
analyzing of right and wrong. A central aspect of ethics is "the good life", the life
worth living or that is simply satisfying, which is held by many philosophers to be
more important than moral conduct.

Law[2] is a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions.[3] It
shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as the
foremost social mediator in relations between people. Writing in 350 BC, the
Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, "The rule of law is better than the rule of any
individual."[4]

Idealization is the process by which scientific models assume facts about the
phenomenon being modeled that are certainly false. Often these assumptions are
used to make models easier to understand or solve. Many times idealizations do
not harm the predictive accuracy of the model for one reason or another. Most
debates surrounding the usefulness of a particular model often are about the
appropriateness of different idealizations.

Idealism is the philosophical theory which maintains that the ultimate nature of
reality is based on mind or ideas. It holds that the so-called external or "real world"
is inseparable from mind, consciousness, or perception.
In the philosophy of perception, idealism is contrasted with realism in which the
external world is said to have a so-called absolute existence prior to, and
independent of, knowledge and consciousness. Epistemological idealists (such as
Kant), it is claimed, might insist that the only things which can be directly known
for certain are just ideas.
In the philosophy of mind, idealism is contrasted with materialism in which the
ultimate nature of reality is based on physical substances. Idealism and materialism
are both theories of monism as opposed to dualism and pluralism.

An ideology is a set of aims and ideas, especially in politics. An ideology can be
thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things (compare
Weltanschauung), as in common sense (see Ideology in everyday society below)
and several philosophical tendencies (see Political ideologies), or a set of ideas
proposed by the dominant class of a society to all members of this society. The
main purpose behind an ideology is to offer change in society through a normative
thought process. Ideologies are systems of abstract thought (as opposed to mere
ideation) applied to public matters and thus make this concept central to politics.
Implicitly every political tendency entails an ideology whether or not it is
propounded as an explicit system of thought.

As commonly used, individual refers to a person or to any specific object in a
collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of
statistics and metaphysics, individual means "indivisible", typically describing any
numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person." (q.v. "The problem
of proper names"). From the seventeenth century on, individual indicates
separateness, as in individualism.[1] Individuality is the state or quality of being an
individual; a person separate from other persons and possessing his or her own
needs, goals, and desires

Intelligence (also called intellect) is an umbrella term used to describe a property
of the mind that encompasses many related abilities, such as the capacities to
reason, to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend ideas, to use
language, and to learn. There are several ways to define intelligence. In some
cases, intelligence may include traits such as creativity, personality, character,
knowledge, or wisdom. However, most psychologists prefer not to include these
traits in the definition of intelligence.
Intuition has many related meanings, usually connected to the meaning "ability to
sense or know immediately without reasoning", and is often regarded as a divine or
prophetic power, including:
• Intuition is the philosophical method of Henri Bergson.
• Intuition (philosophy)
• In psychology, intuition may mean:
• Intuition (knowledge) - understanding without apparent effort, quick
and ready insight seemingly independent of previous experiences or
empirical knowledge.
• Intuition is one of the four axes of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator,
opposite sensing.

Irony (from the Ancient Greek εἰρωνεία eironeía, meaning hypocrisy, deception,
or feigned ignorance) is a literary or rhetorical device, in which there is an
incongruity or discordance between what one says or does and what one means or
what is generally understood. Irony is a mode of expression that calls attention to
the character's knowledge and that of the audience.
There is some argument about what qualifies as ironic, but all senses of irony
revolve around the perceived notion of an incongruity between what is said and
what is meant; or between an understanding of reality, or an expectation of a
reality, and what actually happens.
The term Socratic irony, coined by Aristotle, refers to the Socratic Method, and is
not irony in the modern sense of the word.[1]

Meanings for the word truth extend from honesty, good faith, and sincerity in
general, to agreement with fact or reality in particular.[1] The term has no single
definition about which a majority of professional philosophers and scholars agree,
and various theories of truth continue to be debated. There are differing claims on
such questions as what constitutes truth; how to define and identify truth; the roles
that revealed and acquired knowledge play; and whether truth is subjective,
relative, objective, or absolute. This article introduces the various perspectives and
claims, both today and throughout history.

Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate")[1]
is difficult to define. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn
compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of
Concepts and Definitions.[2] However, the word "culture" is most commonly used
in three basic senses:
• excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities
• an integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends