Pharmacological and Therapeutic Activities of Kigelia africana

17 Pages·2014·0.27 MB·English

Annual Research & Review in Biology
5(1): 1-17, 2015, Article no.ARRB.2015.001
ISSN: 2347-565X

SCIENCEDOMAIN international
www.sciencedomain.org

Pharmacological and Therapeutic Activities of
Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth

Sunday Ene-Ojo Atawodi1* and Olufunsho Dayo Olowoniyi1

1Department of Biochemistry, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Author SEA conceived the review,
provided the general guide and refined the final materials. Author ODO performed most of the
literature search and wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final
manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/ARRB/2015/8632
Editor(s):
(1) George Perry, Dean and Professor of Biology, University of Texas at San Antonio, USA.
Reviewers:
(1) Anonymous, UAE University, UAE.
(2) H. P. Singh, Department of Hill Area Tea Science, Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology (IHBT) Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India.
(3) Anonymous, Mahasarakham University, Thailand.
(4) Anonymous, University of Lomé, Togo.
(5) Anonymous, Nelson Mandela University, South Africa.
(6) Anonymous, Nelson R Mandela School of Medicine, South Africa.
(7) Anonymous, University of Zululand, South Africa.
Complete Peer review History: http://www.sciencedomain.org/review-history.php?iid=653&id=32&aid=6007

Received 23rd December 2013
Review Article Accepted 25th March 2014
Published 8th September 2014

ABSTRACT

Occurring widely in Africa and beyond is Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth, a medicinal plant with
several attributes and considerable potentials. Various parts of the plant are used locally to treat
cancer, ulcer, gynecological disorders, genital infections, skin diseases, diabetes, epilepsy,
bacterial and fungal infections as well as being used as cosmetics. The antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory properties of some parts of the plant have been explored for therapeutic purposes.
Phytochemical analyses revealed the presence of a wide range of secondary metabolites.
Toxicological effects of different extracts of the fruit, stem bark and leaf have been reported. In this
review we provide an up-to-date information on established pharmacological and toxicological
properties, as well as phytochemical constituents responsible for these activities in Kigelia africana.

Keywords: Kigelia africana; sausage tree; bioactive compounds; biological activity; toxicological
effects.
____________________________________________________________________________________________

*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected];
Atawodi and Olowoniyi; ARRB, 5(1): 1-17, 2015; Article no. ARRB.2015.001

1. INTRODUCTION 2. USES of Kigelia africana IN
TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND THEIR
Kigelia africana (syn. Kigelia pinnata, Kigelia PHARMACOLOGICAL EVALUATION
aethiopica) is commonly referred to as sausage
or cucumber tree because of its huge sausage or 2.1 Anti-Protozoal Activity
cucumber-like fruit. It belongs to the
Bignoniaceae family. Due to its wide occurrence,
One of the several uses of Kigelia africana is for
it has vernacular names in many African
treating malaria [7]. In-vitro studies revealed the
languages: Rawuya (Hausa, Nigeria); Uturubein
efficacy of hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl
(Igbo, Nigeria); Pandoro, Iyan (Yoruba, Nigeria);
acetate and ethanol extracts of the root bark
Bechi (Nupe, Nigeria); Mwegea (Swahili, Kenya,
against Plasmodium falciparum [8] and
Tanzania); Umfongothi (Zulu, South Africa) [1,2]
Trypanosoma brucei brucei and T. b.
and Ebie in Igala, Nigeria. In Hindi (India) it is
rhodesiense [9], the causative organisms for
known as Balmkheera [3]. Kigelia africana occurs
malaria and sleeping sickness respectively. The
throughout tropical Africa. It grows particularly
growth of Entamoeba histolytica was also
well in wetter areas, spreading across the wet
inhibited by the stem bark butanol extract [10].
savannah and riverine areas [3].
Four compounds that exhibited significant anti-

plasmodial activity were isolated from the ethyl
The tree can grow up to 20m tall. It is evergreen acetate extract of Kigelia africana. Three of the
where rainfall occurs throughout the year, but four compounds showed good activity against all
deciduous where there is a long dry season. The the different parasite strains, the chloroquine-
flowers (and later the fruit) hang down from resistant W-2 and two field isolates of
branches on long flexible stems. Flowers are Plasmodium falciparum, with IC <5µM.
50
produced in panicles; they are bell-shaped, Specicoside exhibited the highest activity on W-2
orange to reddish or purplish green and about (IC =1.5µM) followed by 2β, 3β, 19α-trihydroxy-
50
10cm wide. Their scent is most notable at night urs-12-en-28-oic acid (IC =1.60µM) and
50
indicating their reliance on pollination by bats, atranorin (IC =4.41µM) while p-hydroxycinnamic
50
which visit them for pollen and nectar [4]. Kigelia acid was the least active (IC =53.84µM) [11].
50
africana is characterized by its huge fruits which Lapachol in the methanol extract of the root and
can weigh between 5 to 10kg [5]. The fruit is another compound (a quinone) obtained from the
indehiscent, with woody wall and heavily marked wood show anti-malarial activity. Three iridoids-
with lenticels at the surface. It is grey-brown and specioside, verminiside and minecoside isolated
many seeded when matured. The fruit is eaten from the butanol extract of the stem bark
by several species of wild animals that also possess ant-amoebic activity [7]. The anti-
disperse the seeds in their dung [4]. Parts of the trypanosome activity of the stem bark and root
plant are used for treating a wide range of bark extracts are attributed to 2-(1-hydroxyethyl)-
ailments traditionally based mainly on cultural naphtho-[2,3-b]-furan-4,9-quinone and three
practices. The fruit is used to treat skin ailments naphthoquinoids: isopinnatal, kigelinol and
like fungal infections, boils, psoriasis and isokigelinol [9].
eczema. Dysentery, ringworm, tapeworm, post-
partum haemorrhage, malaria, diabetes and 2.2 Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities
pneumonia are also treated with the fruit [3]. The
fruit is also applied for the treatment of solar Various parts of Kigelia africana are employed to
keratosis and malignant melanoma [6]. The bark treat bacterial and fungal infections. In a study to
is used to treat venereal diseases while the root verify these properties, crude extracts of stem
is applied to treat ulcer [3]. bark and fruits were prepared with distilled water,
ethanol or ethyl acetate. In the microtitre plate
This review on Kigelia Africana is divided into bioassay, the stem bark and fruit extracts
biological activities such as antiprotozoal, showed similar antibacterial effects against
antibacterial, antifungal activities; Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria [12].
pharmacological properties such as anti- A mixture of three fatty acids exhibiting
inflammatory and analgesic, anticancer, antibacterial effects was isolated from the ethyl
antidiarrhoeal, anti-ulcer effects as well as acetate extract of the fruits using bioassay-
toxicological effects with the responsible guided fractionation. Palmitic acid was the major
phytochemicals. antibacterial compound in this mixture thus
supporting the traditional use of the plant in

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therapy of bacterial infections [12]. A biologically the carrageenan-induced paw oedema, a dose
monitored fractionation of the methanolic extracts dependent significant inhibition was observed
of the root and fruits led to the isolation of the (p<0.001) between the second and the fifth hour,
naphthoquinones, kigelinone, iso-pinnatal, confirming that the ethanolic stem bark extract
dehydro-α-lapachone and lapachol and the has significant analgesic and anti-inflammatory
phenylpropanoids, ρ-coumaric acid and ferulic properties. Inhibition of the synthesis of
acid as the compounds contributing to the prostaglandins and other inflammatory mediators
observed antibacterial and antifungal activities has been suggested to be responsible for the
[11]. analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties [18].

In another antibacterial and antifungal study 2.4 Anti-Diarrhoeal Activity
using the agar diffusion technique, Owolabi and
co-workers [13] reported that like amoxillin One important local use of Kigelia africana is the
standard antibiotics, crude ethanolic extract use of the leaf for treating diarrhea [19]. An
exhibited antibacterial and antifungal activities administration of a dose of 100 or 200 mg/kg of
against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida aqueous leaf extract to experimental animals
albicans with zones of inhibition measuring caused anti-diarrhea activity. It also reduced the
15.0±0.95 and 20.75±4.6 mm respectively but reduced fecal output in castor oil – induced
the aqueous extract exhibited no antibacterial or diarrhea in animals and remarkably decreased
antifungal activity. The minimum inhibitory the propulsive movement of the gastro-intestinal
concentration for the ethanol extract was found contents [2]. On the isolated guinea pig ileum,
to be 6.25±1.07mg/ml for S. aureus and the extract did not appreciably affect
7.92±1.52 mg/ml for C. albicans. In another acetylcholine and histamine induced
report, it was also established that the stem bark contractions. In an antidiarrhoeal activity studied
extract inhibited a number of harmful micro- using castor oil to induce diarrhea in rats (in vivo)
organisms, including Escherichia coli, and using isolated jejunum, 500 and 1000mg/kg
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus ethanol root extract (in vitro) significantly reduced
aureus and Candida albicans [14]. Similarly, the frequency of diarrheal stool and the
evaluation of the antibacterial activities of spontaneous propulsive movement of isolated
ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Kigelia jejunum [2]. Kigelia africana root extract also
africana fruit against multi drug resistant produced reversible inhibition of acetylcholine
Pseudomonas aeruginosa showed that the induced mobility of isolated rabbit jejunum. The
ethanolic extract was more potent than the observed spasmolytic effects of the extract may
aqueous extract [15]. explain its continual use in the management
of chronic abdominal pains associated with
2.3 Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic diarrhea [2].
Activities
2.5 Anti-Diabetic and Antioxidant
The use of the bark, stem, twigs, leaves and Activities
fruits of Kigelia africana to relieve rheumatism,
toothache and headache has been documented Like many other African food [20] and medicinal
[16]. Picerno and co-workers [17] reported that plants [21–24], the use of Kigelia africana to
the anti-inflammatory property of Kigelia africana manage diabetes is traditionally practiced and
fruit polar extract was due to the constituent reported [2,3]. The anti-diabetic activity and the
verminoside. The compound is known to cause antioxidant effect were studied [25]. Also, in a
significant anti-inflammatory effects inhibiting polyherbal preparation, ADD-199, Kigelia
both iNOS expression and NO release in the africana is in combination with three other plants:
LPS-induced J774.A1 macrophage cell line. Maytenus senegalenses, Annona senegalensis
and Lannea welwitchii. The anti-diabetic and
The ethanolic extract of the stem bark has been antioxidant effects were investigated in
evaluated for analgesic property using acetic streptozotocin-induced diabetic C3H mice and
acid induced mouse writhing and hot plate results were compared with two allopathic
reaction time; and anti-inflammatory property hypoglycaemic drugs, glibenclamide and
using the carrageenan-induced paw oedema. metformin. Plasma glucose, insulin and lipids as
The extract showed a dose dependent significant well as liver glycogen and lipid peroxidation were
reduction of the number of writhes with 500mg/kg measured following treatment for eight weeks.
body weight dose giving the highest reduction. In The results indicated that plasma insulin levels in

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normal controls at termination were about 2.7 Toxicity of Kigelia africana
76µmol/L compared to trace levels in untreated
diabetic mice. Like glibenclamide, ADD-199 2.7.1 Acute toxicity
increased insulin levels in diabetic mice up to
70% of levels in untreated non-diabetic mice In a study on the diuretic activity of aqueous
whilst metformin had no effect. Also, basal extract of the bark in experimental rats, Sharma
plasma glucose levels in diabetic controls and colleagues [28] reported that it was safe up
(18.8mM) were reduced to 14.0mM by 100mg/kg to 5g/kg. A determination of acute toxicity of the
ADD-199 in < 2 weeks compared to 4 to 6 weeks methanol fruit extract using male Sprague-
for glinbenclamide and metformin, respectively. Dawley rats showed that the extract was well
This hypoglycaemic effect of ADD-199 was tolerated by the animals as there were no
associated with the alkaloidal content of the observable signs of acute toxicity effects like
extract. Treatment with ADD-199 or the restiveness, seizure or dizziness after the
hypoglycaemic agents reversed the observed administration of 400mg/kg. However at
elevation in plasma lipids but increased hepatic 6400mg/kg, the animals showed signs of toxicity
glycogen, triacylglycerol and cholesterol levels. like jerks and writhes with 60% death. At
Treatment also increased hepatic glucose uptake 12,800mg/kg there was 80% death of the
by isolated diaphragms and attenuated hepatic animals. The LD50 was estimated from a log-
lipid peroxidation. These antihyperglycaemic and dose curve to be 3,981.07 mg/kg [29-31].
antioxidant actions of ADD-199 were comparable
to those of the maximum daily therapeutic doses In another study, 100mg/Kg aqueous extract was
of glibenclamide (0.25mg/kg) and metformin at administered to rats induced with acetaminophen
50mg/kg [25]. liver toxicity. The extract countered the effect of
acetaminophen on the activities of aspartate
Olaleye and Rocha, [26] carried out an ex-vivo transaminase (AST), alanine transaminase
assessment of the antioxidant property of Kigelia (ALT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase
africana extracts in rat liver homogenate. (CAT), gluthathione peroxidase (GPx) and δ-
Administration of different pro-oxidants: 10 µM aminolevulinate dehydrogenase (δ-ALA-D). This
iron (II) sulphate, (FeSO ) 5µM sodium suggests that the extract can act as
4 ,
nitroprusside (SNP), and 2mM 3-nitropropionic hapatoprotective agent against toxicity possibly
acid led to increased formation of thiobarbituric through its antioxidant action [26].
acid reactive substances (TBARS), which
2.7.2 Sub-chronic and chronic toxicity
indicates lipid peroxidation in the liver.

Administration of Kigelia africana statistically
The administration of the aqueous anti-diabetic
(p<0.05) reduced the production of TBARS in a
polyherbal extract ADD-199 containing Kigelia
concentration-dependent manner in all the pro-
africana and three other plants at a daily dose of
oxidant-induced oxidative stress, suggesting that
100 or 500mg/kg body weight over 30 days, to
the use of the plant in the treatment of various
male Wistar albino rats appeared to show no
diseases, especially liver diseases could be due
effect on many haematological, urinary and
to its ability to act as an antioxidant [26]. Saini
plasma biochemical parameters. It also had no
and co-workers [3] attributed the antioxidant
effect on some modulators of some hepatic
potential of Kigelia africana to caffeic acid
cytochrome P450 (CYP) isozymes normally
derivatives and other compounds unique to the
measured as indices of organ specific toxicity or
plant.
potential for drug interactions. Specifically ADD-

2.6 Anti-Ulcer Effect of Kigelia africana 199 containing Kigelia africana did not affect
plasma AST, ALT, alkaline phosphatase (ALP)

The use of Kigelia africana fruit, bark and root to and albumin or creatinine kinase (CK) levels [25].
treat ulcer has been reported [3]. Owolabi and It also did not affect plasma creatinine and urea
Nworgu [27] investigated the anti-ulcer activity of levels. Furthermore, ADD-199 neither affected
the ethanol extract of Kigelia africana stem bark packed cell volume (PCV), nor the levels of red
in Wistar albino rats. In both preventive and blood cells (RBC), reticulocytes, platelets,
curative models of ulcer respectively induced by lymphocytes and granulocyte. It however,
absolute ethanol and indometacin, the extract caused significant dose-dependent reductions in
caused marked inhibition of ulceration, white blood cell counts at day 15 with varying
suggesting a dose-dependent gastro-protective degrees of recovery by day 30. ADD-199 also
effect by the plant in the two models of ulcer [27]. reduced the rate of body weight increases after

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week 3. However, no changes were observed in concentration and the causative agent identified
organ weight at termination. The ADD-199 did as coumarins [32] Table 1 summarizes the toxic
not significantly affect zoxazolamine-induced effects of Kigelia africana extracts on different
paralysis and pentobarbital-induced sleeping species of animals.

times as well as certain CYP isozyme activities in
rats, suggesting that ADD-199 had no overt 2.9 Anticancer Activity
organ specific toxicity and did not demonstrate a
potential for drug interactions via CYP-mediated There are many reports in literature suggesting
metabolism in rats following sub-chronic the use of Kigelia africana to either prevent or to
administration [25]. treat cancer [4,34,35]. In a study to determine
the effect of Kigelia africana seed oil on cell
The protective effect of methanol extract of proliferation in culture, human colon
Kigelia africana fruit extract against cisplatin- adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) and human embryonic
induced renal toxicity in male rats has been kidney (HEK-293) cells were maintained and
studied [29]. The rats treated with cisplatin for 28 treated with various concentrations (0, 20, 40,
days, suffered loss in body weight, elevation in 80, 100 and 120mg/l) of Kigelia africana seed oil.
blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine levels The trypan blue dye exclusion method was used
as well as tubular necrosis. Pre-treatment with to determine cell growth 48 hours after oil
Kigelia africana fruit methanol extract as a treatment. The seed oil suppressed both Caco-2
prophylaxis significantly prevented these and HEK-293 cell growth in a dose dependent
changes. Though post-treatment of animals with manner. The seed oil did not cause increase cell
the extract after cisplatin treatment did not death as the number dead cells remained
completely restore serum catalase activity, it unchanged under control and oil-treated
caused some alleviating effects, suggesting that conditions. The oil significantly suppressed
Kigelia africana fruit extract may protect against Caco-2 cell growth compared to HEK-293 cell
cisplatin-induced renal toxicity, and hence might growth at all oil concentrations. The suppression
serve as a novel agent to limit renal injury [29]. of Caco-2 and HEK-293 cell proliferation by
Kigelia africana seed oil suggest a potential
2.7.3 Cytotoxic activity antiproliferative effect of the oil on the two cell
lines [36].
The cytotoxicity of hexane, chloroform, ethyl

acetate, ethanol and methanol extracts of
Methanolic extract of the root of Kigelia africana
different parts of Kigelia africana has been
contains the constituent lapachol [34] which is
studied on Artemia salina using the brine shrimp
reported to be effective in the treatment of solar
lethality test (BSLT). Some workers [31] have
keratosis, skin cancer and Kaposi sarcoma, an
reported moderate toxicity of the ethanol extract
HIV-related skin ailment [35]. Serial dilutions of
of the root and fruit at a dosage of 593 and
standardized aqueous, ethanol and
124µg/ml respectively while the ethyl acetate
dichloromethane extracts of the stem bark and
extract of the fruit was also moderately toxic at
fruits of Kigelia africana were tested for their
495µg/ml. Other workers [31,32] reported a
growth inhibitory effects against four melanoma
moderate cytotoxicity of ethanol extract of the
cell lines and a renal cell carcinoma line (Caki-2)
fruit to Artemia salina at a dosage of 1000µg/ml.
using two different assays (3-(4,5-

Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium
2.8 Molluscidal and Piscicidal Effects
bromide, MTT and Sulforhodamine B, SRB

assays). Lapachol, a possible constituent of
The molluscidal and piscidal effects of the
these extracts, together with known therapeutic
aqueous extract of Kigelia africana bark has
anti-neoplastic agents evaluated this way,
been reported [33]. In a study to evaluate the
showed significant inhibitory activity of the
piscidal effect of Kigelia africana aqueous bark
dichloromethane extract of the stem bark and
extract against Clarias gariepinus fingerlings,
lapachol in a dose-dependent and time-
graded concentrations of the extract,
dependent manner. Chemosensitivity of the
40,80,120ppm were prepared into which twenty
melanoma cell lines to the stem bark was greater
fingerlings were added in replicates. The toxicity
than that seen for the renal adenocarcinoma line,
test lasted 24 hours during which observations
but in marked contrast sensitivity to lapachol was
were made at 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 hours.
similar amongst the five cell lines, suggesting
Varying degrees of mortality was recorded, with
that lapachol is the active ingredient that exhibit
100% death after 4 hours in the tank of 120ppm
anti-cancer property [37].

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Table 1. Toxic effects of Kigelia africana extracts on different species of animals

S/N Animal Observed effect Plant Extract Dose Route Reference
species part
1 Artemia Moderate toxicity Root Ethanol 593µg/ml Whole body 31
salina Fruit Ethanol 124µg/ml
Fruit Ethyl 495µg/ml
acetate
2 Artemia Moderate cytotoxicity Fruit Ethanol 7500µg/ml Whole body 50
salina
3 Artemia Low toxicity Leaves Methanol 250µgml Whole body 51
salina
4 Fish Increased opercular Bark Aqueous Oral/whole 52
ventilation and tail fin body
beat leading to
eventual fatique and
eventual death
5 Sprague- Protective effect Fruit Methanol 500mg/kg Oral 29
Dawley rats against cisplatin- 100mg/kg
induced kidney oxidant
injury
6 Wistar albino No overt organ specific Fruit Aqueous 100- Oral 25
rats toxicity and did not 500mg/kg
demonstrate a potential
for drug interaction via
cytochrome P450-
mediated metabolism
7 Mice Reversed the effects of Leaves Aqueous 100mg/kg Oral 26
severe hepatic necrosis
induced by a large
dose of paracetamol

2.10 Effect on the Central Nervous shorter duration of sleep (p<0.0001). On the
System Rota rod, the extract had no sedative effect as
the animals maintained their balance on the
Among the variety of uses of Kigelia africana is in rod through the entire period of the experiment
the treatment of epilepsy, CNS stimulating [39].
activity and as antidotes against snake poisons.
Snake bite antidotes are made with an infusion of 2.11 Effects on Animal Reproductive
the fruits, stem, leaves, twig or bark taken orally Organs and Reproductive System
or rubbed onto the bite [38]. The CNS stimulant
activity of the ethanolic stem bark extract has In traditional medicine, sexual complaints such
been verified [39]. The barbiturate induced as infertility, poor libido, sexual asthenia and
sleeping time and the Rota rod bar were used to impotence are treated with herbal prescriptions
study the effect of the extract on muscle containing the fruit, roots or leaves of Kigelia
coordination in mice. The results showed that the africana. A small amount of unripe fruit is chewed
extract at all doses tested reduced the duration or an aqueous preparation of the fruit is taken
of sleeping time when compared to the control orally as a sexual stimulant, and the intoxicating
group that received distilled water. This traditional beer to which they are added is drunk
difference in sleeping time was significant as an aphrodisiac [5]. The fruits are also applied
(p<0.0001 at all doses tested) and was found to on the breast to improve flow of milk in lactating
be dose dependent. Its effect was also compared women [3]. Kigelia africana fruit aqueous extract
with caffeine (a known stimulant) and the extract has been successfully used as fertility enhancing
gave a shorter duration of sleeping time agent in rats [40]. The steroidal components are
compared to caffeine (p<0.05 at 400 mg/kg thought to enhance reproductive ability since
dose) indicating better stimulant properties. In steroids as androgen and estrogen have shown
comparison with diazepam, the extract at all to contain fertility properties necessary for the
doses tested also gave a statistically significant improvement and production of reproductive

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organs [41]. A study to investigate the effects of brewing process to aid fermentation and
varying dietary supplementation of Kigelia enhance the flavor of traditional beer. The fruit
africana on the sperm quality and fertility in pulp is not edible as it may cause blistering of the
African catfish, Clarias gariepinus showed that tongue and skin. However, fallen fruits along with
dietary inclusion of the plant positively affected leaves and flowers are browsed or foraged by
some parameters of sperm quality in the fish, livestock and wildlife [5]. In a study of the effect
with increases in sperm counts, percentage of Kigelia africana fruit meal (KAFM) on sperm
motility, milt volume and motility duration [41]. quality of African catfish, Clarias gariepinus, the
KAFM supplement may have enhanced nutrient
2.12 Use as Cosmetics
utilization which is reflected by improvement in
weight gain by testes [40].
Traditionally, Kigelia africana is used as cosmetic

to enhance beauty [5]. Some preparations
The pro-fertility effect of dried fruit meal (KAFM)
contain extract of one or more parts of the plant,
was investigated on reproductive performance of
mainly the fruit, stem bark or the pendulum
female Clarias gariepinus fed with increasing
(where the fruit hangs from, or a product thereof).
levels for 90 days in relation to egg production
Typically, the preparation contains 50% extract
and quality (number, shape, structure, fecundity)
mixed with carrier, excipients and colorants
and hatchability (percentile fertilization, percentile
(SumobrainTM). Aqueous or alcohol extracts are
hatching, percentile survival). The decrease in
ideal for water based cosmetic products such as
percentile deformity in hatchlings of Clarias
gels, lotion, water or oil emulsions and creams.
gariepinus fed dietary KAFM compared with the
The products are used to make anti-ageing and
control diet suggest that KAFM improves the
regenerating skin care products, skin tightening
quality of larvae. The highest percentile survival
cosmetics such as bust firming products. Anti-
of hatchlings was recorded in the fish fed with
inflammatory, antioxidant and antibacterial
dietary KAFM (100g KAFM/kg diet). Egg sizes for
agents are other products that are commercially
fish fed the control diet and dietary levels
made from Kigelia Africa.
revealed no significant difference in egg size.

The result showed that dried KAFM had
2.13 Diuretic Activity
greater fertility on male than on female Clarias

garipinus [42].
The diuretic activity of Kigelia africana aqueous

bark extract was investigated by the
4. PHYTOCHEMISTRY OF VARIOUS
determination of urine volume, electrolyte
PARTS Kigelia africana
concentration and diuretic potency in male albino

rats. Different concentrations of the extract, 250
The occurrence of secondary metabolites in
and 500mg/kg were orally administered to
different parts of Kigelia africana is responsible
hydrated rats and their urine output was
for its several medicinal applications. These
immediately measured after 5 hours of treatment.
compounds include naphthaquinones, iridoids,
Fusemide (10mg/kg) was used as reference drug
sterols, coumarins, flavonoids and alkaloids
while normal saline (0.9%) was used as control.
among others [3,43,44] Structures of isolated
The result showed that the bark extract exhibited
compounds have been characterized and
dose dependent diuretic property. The onset of
identified using gas chromatography, ultraviolet
diuretic action was within 1 hour and lasted up to
spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, nuclear
5 hours, with 500mg/kg displaying a potency of
magnetic resonance and other spectroscopic
0.8 and 250mg/kg, respectively. The extract also
techniques like, mass spectrometry, or gas
caused a marked increase in Na+, K+ and Cl-
chromatography-mass spectrometry.
labels [28]. The result suggests that the aqueous

extract possess significant diuretic activity,
The use of Kigelia africana in traditional African
justifying its use in folk medicine for kidney and
medicines has been verified by corresponding
urinary disorders.
pharmacological properties.

3. NUTRITIONAL VALUE
4.1 Chemical Constituents of Kigelia

africana Fruit
Kigelia africana provides a nutritious source of
food during times of famine when the seeds are Gouda and colleagues [45] reported that a new
roasted to eat. The fruit and bark are used in the furanone derivative formulated as 3-(2'-

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hydroxyethyl)-5-(2''-hydroxypropyl) dihydrofuran- properties [50-53] have been reported in the
2-(3H)one and four new iridoids named: 7- dichloromethane extract of the root [3,4,54,55]
hydroxyviteoid II, 7-hydroxyeucommic acid, 7- while two non-quinonoid aldehydes, norviburtinal
hydroxy-10-deoxyeucommiol and 10- and pinnatal have been obtained from the root
deoxyeucommiol have been isolated from the bark [4,37].
fruits in addition to seven known iridoids namely,
jiofuran, jioglutolide,1-dehydroxy-3,4- 4.4 Chemical Constituents of Kigelia
dihydroaucubigenin, des-p-hydroxybenzoyl Africana Leaf
kisasagenol B, ajugol, verminoside and 6-

transcaffeoyl ajugol. Further phytochemical
The hexane extract of the leaf of Kigelia africana
investigation of the fruits of Kigelia africana
has been reported to be rich in hydrocarbons and
yielded a new phenylpropanoid derivative
some volatile compounds. In a study that
identified as 6-p-coumaroylsucrose together with
qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed the
ten known phenylpropanoid and phenylethanoid
hexane extract for various chemical
derivatives and a flavonoid glycoside [46]. A
compositions, it was revealed to contain twelve
biologically monitored fractionation of the fruit led
compounds with the major ones identified as n-
to the isolation and identification of the
hentriacontane, 1-tricosene, 11-(2,2-
naphthoquinones, kigelinone, isopinnatal,
dimethylpropylheneicosane, 2,6,10-
dehydro-alpha lapachol and the
trimethyldodecane, pentafluoroheptadecyl ester,
phenylpropanoids p-coumaric acid and ferulic
2-ethylhexyloctadecyl sulfurous acid ester,
acid.
heneicosane and hexyloctylsulfurous acid ester

[55,56,57] Others are 4,4-dimethylundecane,
4.2 Chemical Constituents of Kigelia
methyl-12-methyltetradecanoate, 1-
Africana Stem
iodohexadecane and 1-iododecane.

Hentriacontane have been reported to have a
A study of the antimicrobial properties of the
possible anti-tumour activity while methyl-12-
aqueous stem bark extract of Kigelia africana
methyltetradecanoate has also been reported for
revealed the presence of two naphthoquinones
its inhibition capacity on the development of
kigelinone and isopinnatal [44,3].Three known
coneal angiogenesis, which is responsible for
iridoids: specioside, verminoside and minecoside
blindness and other infections [44] Flavonoids
have also been isolated from the stem bark [47]
and iridoids [45] and a 7-O-glucoside [9,37] have
The dichloromethane extract of the stem bark
also been found in the leaves (Table 2). The
contain naphthoquinones which possess anti
structural formulae of some of the chemical
trypanosomal properties [3,4] while kigelin, β-
constituents isolated from Kigelia africana are
sitosterol, 1,3-dimethylkigelin and ferulic acid
presented in Fig. 1.
have been isolated from the bark, while the

isolation of kigeliol from the wood and balaphonin
from the stem bark have been reported [19, 48]. Considering the pharmacological and therapeutic
efficacies of many phytochemicals isolated from
4.3 Chemical Constituents of Kigelia different parts of Kigelia africana in experimental
Africana Root models, it would be worthwhile to synthesize the
active components in large quantities for testing
Earlier workers [47] reported the isolation and in higher animals like monkeys and chimpanzees
identification of the naphthoquinones, kigelinone, preparatory to large scale clinical trials in
isopinnatal, dehydro-alpha-lapachol and the humans before their deployment as therapeutic
phenylpropanoids p-coumaric acid and ferulic agents in humans. However, since the synthesis
acid from the root of Kigelia africana. Steroids, of many phytochemicals can be unbelievably
iridoids and coumarins have been isolated from difficult [21], it is recommended that this plant be
the root bark [48] as well as three isocoumarins: included as protected species in communities
6-methoxymellein, kigelin and 6-demethylkigelin where they are found, and plantations of this
[49]. The isolation of kiglin and 6-methoxymellein plant be established as immediate source of the
together with two known compounds, identified active ingredients for the clinical trials.
stigmasterol and lapachol from the root has also
been reported [37] Naphthoquinones that
possess anti-trypanosomal and antiprotozoal

8
Atawodi and Olowoniyi; ARRB, 5(1): 1-17, 2015; Article no. ARRB.2015.001

O
O
O CH
3
O
OH
Kigelinone

COOH
HO
Coumaric acid

OH
HO O
OH
OH O
Luteolin

9
Atawodi and Olowoniyi; ARRB, 5(1): 1-17, 2015; Article no. ARRB.2015.001

OH
HO O
OH
OH O
Luteolin

OH O CH
3
OH
R
R'
CH
O 3
R=OH, R'=H Pinnatal
R=H, R'=OH Isopinnatal

O
O
CH
3
OH
O
2-acetylnaphthao[2,3-b]furan-4,9-quinone

10