Pharmacognosy and the Senses in Two Amazonian Societies by Glenn Harvey Shepard Jr. AB

363 Pages·2001·1.57 MB·English

Pharmacognosy and the Senses in Two Amazonian Societies
by
Glenn Harvey Shepard Jr.
A.B. (Princeton University) 1987
M.A. (University of California, Berkeley) 1992
A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the
requirements for the degree of
Joint Doctor of Philosophy
with the University of California, San Francisco
in
Medical Anthropology
in the
GRADUATE DIVISION
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY
Committee in charge:
Professor Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Chair
Professor Brent Berlin
Professor Katharine Milton
Professor Judith Barker
Professor Richard Norgaard
Fall 1999
Pharmacognosy and the Senses in Two Amazonian Societies
© 1999
by
Glenn Harvey Shepard Jr.
Abstract
Pharmacognosy and the Senses in Two Amazonian Societies
by
Glenn Harvey Shepard Jr.
Joint Doctor of Philosophy in Medical Anthropology
University of California, Berkeley
Professor Nancy Scheper-Hughes, Chair
Medicinal plant therapy is a total sensory experience among the Matsigenka and
the Yora (Yaminahua) of Amazonian Peru. Cues thought to indicate plant efficacy are
sensed through multiple modes: taste, odor, irritation, and vision as well as body/mind
sensations induced by emetic, psychoactive, and stimulating plants. Though occupying
adjacent territories, the Matsigenka and Yora belong to different cultural-linguistic
families and did not interact until recently. A comparative study documented criteria
used by both groups to evaluate the healing power of plants. Odor is significant in both
groups’ cultural constructions of illness and therapy. Both value plants with red juice for
blood-related conditions. For the most part, Matsigenka ethnomedicine is allopathic, as
medicines act through opposition. Many plants are selected for toxic properties
(bitterness, pungency, causticity) that overpower and expel illness. Bitterness is the most
frequently encountered medicinal property, and many remedies are administered orally.
Yora ethnomedicine is homeopathic in the sense that “like treats like.” Medicinal plants
are classified according to visible signatures: spiny plants for sharp pains, pink leaves for
pinkeye, plants with watery latex for watery diarrhea, etc.. Medicines are rarely taken
internally, but rather applied externally as warm compresses. Bitterness, crucial in
Matsigenka models of efficacy, is of little importance in Yora medicine. Different
efficacy models appear consistent with different individual and social responses to pain in
the two groups. Both groups have suffered severe health consequences and other
negative impacts of Western
contact in recent decades. Differences in traditional pharmacognosy contribute to
different perceptions of Western pharmaceuticals in the two groups. Despite cultural
differences, there are major ecological and taxonomic similarities in the two
pharmacopoeia. Sixteen botanical families, mostly understory shrubs and herbs, account
for more than 65% of all medicines encountered. Regression analysis demonstrates a
statistically significant correlation between the two medicinal flora. This study of
comparative ethnopharmacology reveals neither strict cultural nor environmental
determinism in medicinal plant selection, but rather a complex interweaving of cultural
and ecological adaptations. Medicines, whether natural or synthetic, indigenous or
globally distributed, are at the same time empirically active agents and potent symbols of
healing power.
This thesis is dedicated to my parents, Glenn and
Jean Moye Shepard, for their support, patience and
love throughout the years, and to the memory of
Marcial Vicente Shamoko: Ige, nokenkiakempi.
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Table of Contents:
List of Maps, Tables and Figures....................................................................................viii
Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................ix
Introduction.....................................................................................................................1
Anecdotes and the Ethnographic Method...........................................................2
Efficacy: Perspectives from Medical Anthropology..........................................4
The Comparative Method....................................................................................8
Chapter Outline...................................................................................................12
Chapter 1: The Setting: Culture, Ecology and History..................................................18
Geographic and Ecological Setting.....................................................................19
Cultural Diversity................................................................................................21
Study Communities.............................................................................................23
The Matsigenka...................................................................................................24
Yomybato: A Brief History.....................................................................26
The Yora/Yaminahua..........................................................................................30
The Yora: “First Contact”......................................................................32
The Smell of Steel and The Feverish Winds Of History.....................................41
El Dorado................................................................................................42
Ancient Networks of Trade.....................................................................44
The Fever of Rubber................................................................................46
Isolated Indigenous Groups Today..........................................................47
Amazon Crude.........................................................................................50
The Status of Indigenous Rights in Peru.................................................51
Chapter 2: Methods........................................................................................................54
Taste/Odor Experiment.......................................................................................56
“Best Example” Experiment...............................................................................60
Elicitation and Classification of Illness Categories.............................................60
Ethnoepidemiological Census.............................................................................62
Ethnobotanical Collections.................................................................................63
Notes on Orthography.........................................................................................64
Ethnographic Bias...............................................................................................68
Chapter 3: The Cultural Context of Healing..................................................................72
Botany and Medicine...........................................................................................72
Shamanistic Healing............................................................................................75
Evolving Techniques of Ecstasy.............................................................78
Seripigari: The Matsigenka Tobacco-Shaman.......................................80
Kokoti: The Yora “Sucking Shaman”....................................................84
Common Shamanic Themes....................................................................87
Emotional Pathology and the Matsigenka Ethos.................................................89
Ethos and Pathos.................................................................................................94
Medical Botany, Gender and Ecological Balance...............................................97
Gift of the Harpy Eagle: Matsigenka Hunting Medicines......................98
The Revenge of the Hunted: Child Care Medicines...............................102
Chapter 4: Illness and Etiology......................................................................................104
Illness and Mortality............................................................................................106
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Illness Categories in Matsigenka and Yora/Yaminahua.....................................108
Illness Classification...............................................................................109
Gastrointestinal Conditions.....................................................................113
Gynecological Conditions.......................................................................117
Respiratory Conditions............................................................................120
Heart and Chest Conditions.....................................................................123
Fevers......................................................................................................125
Body Pains...............................................................................................127
Ear/Eye/Dental Conditions......................................................................130
Skin Conditions.......................................................................................133
Animal Bites and Stings..........................................................................140
Animal/Plant Spirit Revenge...................................................................142
Demon Attack and Sorcery.....................................................................145
Miscellaneous Signs and Conditions.......................................................151
Discussion: Modes of Contagion.......................................................................153
Default Etiologies....................................................................................155
Worms and Insect Etiologies...................................................................157
Odors in Illness Causation and Therapy..................................................158
Poisons and Pills: Responses to Western Medicine...........................................160
Chapter 5: Sensory Evaluation of Medicines.................................................................162
Chemosensation..................................................................................................163
Taste........................................................................................................163
Odor.........................................................................................................170
Irritation...................................................................................................185
Sensory Categories in Matsigenka and Yora/Yaminahua Pharmacognosy.........189
Collections Database...........................................................................................192
Sensory Properties...............................................................................................194
Mode of Administration..........................................................................196
Taste........................................................................................................196
Irritation/Toxicity....................................................................................197
Odor.........................................................................................................197
Visual and Tactile Properties and the “Doctrine of Signatures”.............199
Inherent property.....................................................................................201
Chemosensory Vocabulary..................................................................................201
TASTE VOCABULARY........................................................................202
Bitter............................................................................................202
M: kepishi -- ‘bitter, bitter-astringent’...........................202
Y: moka -- ‘bitter, bitter-astringent, excessively
salty’................................................................................202
Astringent....................................................................................207
M: tine -- ‘astringent, slightly bitter...............................207
Y: tsimo -- ‘astringent, slightly bitter’............................207
Sweet-Salty-Tart..........................................................................211
M: pocha -- ‘sweet, pleasantly salty, pleasantly tart’.....211
Y: wata -- ‘sweet, pleasantly salty, pleasantly tart’........211
Sour.............................................................................................214
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M: kacho -- ‘sour, acid, unripe, fermented’....................214
Y: wokash -- ‘sour, acid, unripe, fermented....................214
IRRITATION VOCABULARY..............................................................216
Painful, pungent..........................................................................216
M: katsi - ‘painful, pungent’..........................................216
Y: pae - ‘strong, painful, pungent, intoxicating’............216
Stinging, burning (by chemical means).......................................223
M: otegaka .....................................................................223
Y: wa’a ..........................................................................223
Intoxicating, emetic.....................................................................225
M: kepigari -- ‘intoxicating, hallucinogenic, toxic,
poisonous’.......................................................................225
Y: pae -- ‘strong, painful, intoxicating’..........................225
Y: anati -- ‘emetic, inducing vomiting’..........................225
Irritating, urticating, itching........................................................229
M: kaeni..........................................................................229
Y: xõai............................................................................229
Anesthetic....................................................................................232
M: amirigake -- ‘calms pain’..........................................232
M: ampatake, jampatake -- ‘tingling, numbness’...........232
Y: asawãna -- ‘causes tingling, numbness......................232
ODOR VOCABULARY.........................................................................233
Fragrant.......................................................................................233
M: kasanka -- ‘volatile, fragrant, aromatic,
odorous’...........................................................................233
Y: ini -- ‘fragrant, aromatic, odorous.............................233
Rank............................................................................................240
M: enkaga, jenkaga -- ‘reeking, smoking.......................240
Y: itsa -- ‘rank, aromatic, musk odor’............................240
Foul..............................................................................................243
M: shiti -- ‘foul, rotten, stinking, reeking, strongly
odorous’...........................................................................243
Y: pisi -- ‘foul, rotten, stinking, reeking, strongly
odorous’...........................................................................243
Raw meat, blood odor.................................................................245
M: anigarienka, janigarienka -- ‘heart odor....................245
Y: wiya -- ‘odor of raw fish, blood, meat, organs’.........245
Unique odor.................................................................................247
M: oenkagake ....-enka -- ‘its odor is ... odor’................247
Y: .... xetetsa -- ‘.... odor’...............................................247
Intoxicating odor.........................................................................249
M: kepigarienka -- ‘intoxicating, overwhelming
odor’................................................................................249
Y: pae -- ‘strong, painful, pungent,
intoxicating’....................................................................249
Bitter odor...................................................................................250
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M: kepishienka -- ‘bitter odor’.......................................250
Y: mokaitsa -- ‘bitter+rank’...........................................250
Mild to slightly rank vegetative odor (like maize, legumes).......251
Y: axò.............................................................................251
Nauseating, stench of urine.........................................................252
Y: chíko-- ‘nauseating, acrid, unpleasant’......................252
Garlicky.......................................................................................253
M: samperaenka -- ‘Mansoa odor’.................................253
M: santarienka -- ‘Cedrela odor’....................................253
M: chariro -- ‘Petiveria’.................................................253
Y: sasa -- ‘garlicky, rank’..............................................253
Y: wowaitsa -- ‘Mansoa (rank odor)’.............................253
Toasted, smoked, burnt odor.......................................................255
M: shinkorienka-- ‘smoked odor’..................................255
M: tagarienka -- ‘burnt odor’..........................................255
Y: nowe -- ‘toasted, smoked, burnt odor........................255
Ripe, floral, fragrant at a distance...............................................256
M: asuroenka -- ‘ripe, floral, fragrant at a distance’.......256
Y: ane -- ‘ripe, floral, fresh, aromatic’...........................256
Y: tokas, ta’as -- ‘aromatic, fragrant at a distance’........256
VISUAL/TACTILE VOCABULARY....................................................257
Red, blood-colored......................................................................257
M: kirajaama -- ‘red liquid (sap, juice, infusion)’..........257
M: iraatsi, jiraatsi -- ‘blood’...........................................257
Y: oshi -- ‘red’...............................................................257
Y: imi keskara -- ‘bloodlike’..........................................257
Dark liquid...................................................................................260
M: potsitaama.................................................................260
Y: ene chexe...................................................................260
Spiny............................................................................................261
M: aityo otsei -- ‘has spines’..........................................261
Y: moxaya -- ‘has spines’...............................................261
Y: mitsisya -- ‘has prickles, recurved spines’................261
Bristly..........................................................................................262
M: kepiri -- ‘bristly, fine or urticating hairs,
tomentose’.......................................................................262
Y: xopoya -- ‘bristly, coarse hairs, pilose,
tomentose,.......................................................................262
Latex............................................................................................263
M: aityo okashi...............................................................263
Y: wepoya.......................................................................263
Overall form................................................................................264
M: kañotaka ... -- ‘similar to ...’......................................264
Y: ... keskara -- ‘similar to ...’.......................................264
Y: ...-na -- ‘of ...’ (e.g., winana, ‘of the wasp’)..............264
Sticky...........................................................................................266
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