Petrophysics: Fundamentals of the Petrophysics of Oil and Gas Reservoirs

390 Pages·2012·8.116 MB·English

by  Leonid Buryakovsky, George V. Chilingar, Herman H. Rieke, Sanghee Shin(auth.)

Fundamentals of the Petrophysics
of Oil and Gas Reservoirs
Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 41J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Petrophysics
Fundamentals of the Petrophysics
of Oil and Gas Reservoirs
Leonid Buryakovsky, Ph.D.
Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, U.S.A. Section
George V. Chilingar, Ph.D.
Emeritus Professor of Civil, Environmental and Petroleum
Engineering,
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
Herman H. Rieke, Ph.D.
Professor of Petroleum Engineering, University of Louisiana
at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA
and
Sanghee Shin, Ph.D.
Research Associate, Rudolf W. Gunnerman, Energy and
Environmental Laboratory,
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
Scrivener
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Cover design by Kris Hackerott.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
ISBN 978-1-118-34447-7
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 21
77ns volume is dedicated to Dr. Chengyu Fu
for his important contributions
to World Petroleum Industry
and World Economy
Contents
Preface xi
List of Contributors xvii
Acknowledgement xix
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Characterization of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 1
1.1.1 Geographical and Geological Background
of the South Caspian Basin 5
1.1.2 Sedimentary Features of Productive
Horizons in the South Caspian Basin 9
1.1.3 Depositional Environment of Productive
Series, Azerbaijan 13
1.2 Reservoir Lithologies 16
1.2.1 Clastic Rocks 16
1.2.2 Pore Throat Distribution in Carbonate Rocks 24
1.2.3 Carbonate Rocks 35
1.2.4 Carbonate versus Sandstone Reservoirs 47
1.2.5 Volcanic/Igneous Rocks 47
1.2.6 Classification of Hydrocarbon Accumulations
Based on the Type of Traps 52
2. Characterization of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 57
2.1 Petrophysical Parameters 57
2.2 Porosity, Void Ratio, and Density 57
2.2.1 Quantitative Evaluation of Porosity in
Argillaceous Sediments 63
2.3 Permeability 66
2.3.1 Porosity /Permeability Relationship 73
2.4 Specific Surface Area 79
2.4.1 Derivation of Theoretical Equation Relating
Porosity, Permeability, and Surface Area 79
viii CONTENTS
2.4.2 Relationship Between Specific Surface Area
(Area Per Unit of Pore Volume) and
Permeability of Carbonate Rocks 85
2.4.3 Relationship Between Specific
Surface Area and Residual Water
Saturation of Carbonate Rocks 85
2.5 Interrelationship Among Prorosity,
Permeability, and Specific Surface Area 86
2.5.1 Vuktyl'skiy Gas-Condensate Field, Russia 88
2.5.2 Central Asia 88
2.5.3 Kuybyshev, Along-Volga Region, Russia 89
2.5.4 Orenburg Field, Russia 90
2.6 Wettability - Capillarity 98
2.6.1 Interfacial Tension and Contact Angle 98
2.6.2 Capillary Pressure Curves 107
2.6.3 Compressibility 108
2.7 Elastic Properties 118
2.7.1 Classification of Stresses 119
2.8 Acoustic Properties 123
2.8.1 Borehole Seismic and Well Logging Methods 125
2.8.2 Practical Use of Acoustic Properties of Rocks 126
2.9 Electrical Resistivity 128
2.9.1 Spontaneous Potential 131
2.10 Radioactivity 137
2.10.1 Atomic Structure 138
2.10.2 Radioactivity Logging Applications 145
2.11 Chemistry of Waters in Shales versus
those in Sandstones 149
3. Seismic Parameters 151
3.1 Introduction 151
3.2 Elastic Properties 152
3.3 Velocity and Rock Properties 154
3.4 Pore Pressure 159
3.5 Seismic Anisotropy 164
3.5.1 Effective Medium Theories 168
3.5.2 The Effect of Pore Space and Pore
Geometry on Moduli 174
3.5.3 Gassmann's Equations 176
3.5.4 Bounding Average Method 178
3.5.5 Küster and Toksöz Theory 179
CONTENTS
Historical Review 183
A.l Introduction 183
A.2 Initial Phases of Development 183
A.3 Gus Archie's Equations and the Dawn
of Quantitative Petrophysics 195
A.4 Air-Filled Boreholes, Oil-Based Muds,
and Induction Logs 197
A.5 World War II Technology Legacy 198
A.6 Cased-Hole Correlation and Natural Gamma
Ray Logs 198
A.7 Seismic Velocities, Acoustic Logs, and
Jessie Wylie's Time Average Equation 199
A.8 The Manhattan Project and Nuclear Logging 201
A.9 Space Program Technology Legacy 201
A.10 SANDIA Geothermal Log Program and
Hardened Microcircuits 202
A.ll Extended-Reach Directional Drilling,
Horizontal Wells, Deep Water, Ultra Deep Wells
and Measurements While Drilling 203
A.12 Data Acquisition, Data Recording, and
Data Transmission Developments 203
A. 13 Log Analysis Developments 206
A.14 Formation True Resistivity, R , Flushed Zone
t
Resistivity, R , Water Saturation, S , and
xo
Flushed Zone Saturation, S 210
A. 15 Rat Holes, Bed Resolution, Depth of Investigation,
and Laterolog Developments 212
A.16 Air, Mist and Oil-Based Muds: Induction Log
Developments 220
A.l7 Departure Curves, Tornado Charts
and Inversion 225
A. 18 Acoustic Log - The Accidental Porosity Tool 228
A.19 Neutron Log - The First True Porosity Tool 233
A.20 Density Log - The Porosity Tool that
almost did not Make It 237
A.21 Pulsed Neutron Capture Logs -
The All Purpose Tool 242
A.22 Through Casing Resistivity Measurements -
Well Logging's Holy Grail 245
A.23 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Log - Patience
and Persistence 248
x CONTENTS
A.24 S Tool Developments 252
A.25 Dielectric Tool Developments 253
A.26 Dipmeters to Borehole Imaging 256
A.27 Wireline Formation Testers 264
A.28 Shaly Sands 266
A.29 Golden Era and Black Period of Petrophysics 267
A.30 The Future 269
Bibliography 271
Web Pages 278
B. Mechanics of Fluid Flow 279
Β.Ί Fundamental Equation of Fluid Statics 279
B.2 Buoyancy 280
B.3 General Energy Equation 281
B.4 Derivation of Formula for Flow
Through Orifice Meter 282
B.5 Compressible Flow Formula 284
B.6 Farshad's Surface Roughness Values and
Relative-Roughness Equations 290
B.7 Flow Through Fractures 293
B.8 Permeability of a Fracture-Matrix System 294
B.9 Fluid Flow in Deformable Rock Fractures 294
B.10 Electrokinetic Flow 299
References 301
C. Glossary 303
References 347
Bibliography 349
Subject Index 369
Preface
Petrophysics (rock physics) is a branch of applied geology relating to
the study of reservoir and caprock properties and their interactions
with fluids (gases, hydrocarbons, and aqueous solutions) based
on fundamental methods of physics, chemistry, and mathematics.
The geologic material forming a reservoir for the accumulation of
fluids (oil, gas and water) in the subsurface must contain a three-
dimensional network of interconnected voids (pores, vugs and/or
fractures) to store the formation fluids and allow their movement
within the reservoir during hydrocarbon recovery. Petrophysical
applications are widely used in petroleum geology, economic geol-
ogy, seismic interpretations, hydrocarbon reserve estimation, reser-
voir description and simulation, field development planning, and
reservoir production management.
The goal of petroleum geology is to perform the exploration and
to provide, if a discovery is made of a commercial oil and gas accu-
mulation, a geological/geophysical description of the reservoir.
This includes preparing an estimate of the initial reserve hydrocar-
bon volume. The application of petrophysics in both hydrocarbon
exploration and recovery is to minimize financial risk.
The goal of economic geology is the study and analysis of geo-
logic bodies and materials that can be utilized profitably, including
carbon fuels, metals, nonmetallic minerals, and water. The appli-
cation of geoscience knowledge and theory is foremost for under-
standing of the origin of deposits and, most importantly, how to
exploit them.
The goal of reservoir engineering is to produce an integrated res-
ervoir study in order to support a computer model of the reservoir
that can implement the integration of the total reservoir database.
The model must include: (1) production forecasts; (2) results of
operational consequences based on management decisions, and (3)
how to maintain a current reservoir model by using newly-acquired
performance and field data.
XI