Petroleum Microbiology

343 Pages·2005·28.22 MB·English

by  Ollivier

Petroleum
Microbiology

E D I T E D B Y
Bernard Ollivier
Laboratoire de Microbiologie
Institut de Recherche pour le Dkveloppement
Universitks de Provence et de la Mkditerranke
Marseille, France
A N D
Michel Magot
Laboratoire d’Ecologie Molkculaire
Universitk de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour
Pau, France
ASM
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Copyright 0 2005 ASM Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Petroleum microbiology / edited by Bernard Ollivier, Michel Magot.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 1-55581-327-5 (hardcover)
1. Petroleum-Microbiology. I. Ollivier, Bernard, 1957- 11. Magot, Michel.
QR53.5.P48P48 2005
665.5'01'5793-dc22 2004030409
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
All Rights Reserved
Printed in the United States of America
Image ofmicrobe on cover: Electron micrograph of Thewnotoga eljii strain 6459T showing the
typical outer sheath-like structure of Thewnotoga. Reprinted from G. Ravot et al., Int. J. Syst.
Bacteviol. 45:308-314, 1995, with publisher permission.
CONTENTS
Contvibnton vii
Foreword ix
I. MICROBIOLOGY OF OIL FIELDS / 1
1. Oil Reservoirs and Oil Production / 3
Marie Planckaert
2. Indigenous Microbial Communities in Oil Fields / 21
Mickel Mago t
3. Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria and Archaea / 35
NiL-Kiire Birkeland
4. Hyperthermophilic and Methanogenic Archaea in
Oil Fields / 55
Christian Jeantkon, Olivier Nercessian, Ewan Cove, and Agn2s Grabowski-Lux
5. The Fermentative, Iron-Reducing, and
Nitrate-Reducing Microorganisms / 71
Bernard Ollivier andlean-Luc Cayol
11. PERNICIOUS EFFECTS OF
BACTERIALACTIVITY / 89
6. Biodegradation of Petroleum in Subsurface
Geological Reservoirs / 91
Haiping Huang and Steve Larter
7. Reservoir Souring: Mechanisms and Prevention / 123
Ian Vance and David R. Thrasher
V
vi W CONTENTS
8. Microbial Corrosion in the Oil Industry:
a Corrosionist’s View / 143
Jean-Louis Crolet
9. Biofouling in the Oil Industry / 171
Peter F. Sanders and Paul]. Stuman
111. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND OIL PRODUCTION / 199
10. Microbial Control of Hydrogen Sulfide Production in
Oil Reservoirs / 201
Egil Sunde and Tevje Torsvik
11. Microbially Enhanced Oil Recovery: Past, Present,
andFuture / 215
Michael J. McInerney, David P. Nagle, and Roy M. Knapp
12. Biotechnological Upgrading of Petroleum / 239
John J. Kilbane II
IV. BIOREMEDIATION OF HYDROCARBON-
CONTAMINATED ENVIRONMENTS / 257
13. Diversity, Function, and Biocatalytic Applications of
Alkane Oxygenases / 259
Jan B. van Beilen and Bernard Witholt
14. Biodegradation of Hydrocarbons under
AnoxicConditions / 277
RaLf Rabus
15. Biodegradation of Fuel Ethers / 301
FranGoise Fayolle and Frddkvic Monot
16. The Microbiology of Marine Oil Spill Bioremediation / 317
Roger C. Prince
17. Metabolic Indicators of Anaerobic Hydrocarbon
Biodegradation in Petroleum-Laden Environments / 337
Lisa M. Gieg andJoseph M. Sufita
Index / 357
MICROBIOLOGY
OF OIL FIELDS
OIL RESERVOIRS AND
OIL PRODUCTION
Marie Planckaert
The objective of this chapter is to introduce THE SOURCE ROCK: WHERE
the world of petroleum. This is done as fol- THE STORY STARTS
lows: first, a description of the reservoir object, The source rock is a rock in which the crude
which could be compared to the setting for oil is formed and from which it is later ex-
a play; second, a presentation of fluids in the pulsed. It is generally accepted that petroleum
reservoir, which is like a presentation of the fluids are produced by the thermal cracking
characters of this play; third, a description of of fossil organic material contained in sedi-
production mechanisms, which could be com- ments during burial. This process is probably
pared to the history of the play; and fourth, a the source of most significant deposits dis-
quick look at drilling, completion, and surface covered so far, but some fluids are obviously
facilities, which are like methods of technical &luted by compounds of inorganic origin.
assistance for the smooth running of the play. Irrespective of its origin, fossil organic ma-
The reference list presents some basic refer- terial is designated by the generic term kerogen.
ences where interested readers can find more Kerogen is the result of the specific preserva-
detailed bibliographies. tion and sehmentation conditions of organic
material; the first stage of the evolutionary pro-
WHAT IS A RESERVOIR? cess is known as diagenesis. Sediments rich in
kerogen are called source rocks, and the process
The Petroleum Trilogy
of thermal cracking is called catagenesis. Pres-
By definition, a petroleum system is composed
ervation of organic matter is necessary; oxida-
of three elements: a source rock, a cap rock,
tion and aerobic biodegradation are strongly
and a reservoir rock. If one of these geological
opposed to petroleum release from sediments.
elements is missing, no petroleum field can be
Geochemists classify kerogens depending on
formed. As discussed below, a fourth element
their potential. The most widely used represen-
is involved in the formation of any oil reser-
tation is the hydrogen index-oxygen index (HI/
voir: the mechanism of trapping.
01) diagram. The two indices are obtained by
the pyrolysis of sediment samples combined
with chromatographic analysis; the 01 is cal-
culated by the integration of the C02 peak,
Marie Plunckuerf, Total S.A., CSTJF, Avenue Larribau, 64018
Pau Cedex, France. and the HI is calculated by integration of the
Perroleurn Microbiology, Edited by Bernard Ollivier and Michel Magot,
0 2005 ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
3
4 PLANCIMRT
hydrocarbon (HC) peak. Obviously, the hgher tion is expelled from the source rock and mi-
the HI is, the better the HC yield wdl be during grates towards a trap that is eventually formed
catagenesis. Dependmg on the origin of the or- by a reservoir rock and a cap rock.
ganic matter, the hydrogedcarbon (H/C) ratio
differs, and it is a key parameter for the final gas/ RESERVOIR ROCK
oil ratio of petroleum fluids. A reservoir rock is like a sponge because it can
The kerogens can easily be classified by stock and expel fluid. Generally, this rock has
using this type of diagram, in terms not only a large capacity for storing HC fluids; this stor-
of their origin, but also of the course of their age capacity depends principally on porosity.
evolution. In fact, kerogens are generally clas- Total porosity is the total vacuous volume in
sified in three types, as shown in Table 1. The the rock divided by the total volume of this
maturation process corresponds to the trans- same rock (expressed as a percentage). The
formation of the organic matter over time un- useful porosity, corresponding to a pore net-
der increasing pressure and temperature. The work which allows fluid displacement, is the
dfferent stages of evolution are presented in most important parameter. Three types of po-
the Van Krevelen diagram (Fig. 1). rosities are generally considered usell porosity:
The first stage of the maturation process is intergranularp orosity, vacuolar porosity, and the
diagenesis, during which bacterial activitiesb egin porosity of fractures.
the degradation of organic matter (biological Another distinction is made between pri-
diagenesis). This stage is relatively short because mary and secondary porosity, which results
of increases in temperature. The products of this during the transformation of sehments into
first degradation are CO2 and the liberation of consolidated rock (diagenesis). Several phe-
water, with the oxygedcarbon (O/C) ratio de- nomena are involved: rock compaction, cemen-
creasing faster than the H/C ratio. It is an im- tation, and recrystahation. Influent parameters
mature stage. are pressure, temperature, and water circula-
The second stage, catagenesis, corresponds tion. The porosity of natural rocks ranges
to the oil and wet-gas window. During this between 0 and 40%: from 10 to 40% for sand-
stage, thermal degradation and cracking occur, stone, from 5 to 25% for limestone and dolo-
and the H/C ratio decreases faster than the O/ mite, and 40% for chalk. The porous volume is
C ratio. The temperature is between 50 and typically composed of pore chambers with a
150°C (122 and 302°F). The depth is between typical pore size of 100 pm, connected by
1.5 and 4 km (4,921 and 13,123 ft). thresholds about 20 pm wide.
The thrd and last stage, metagenesis, is also Permeability is the ability of the rock to allow
called the gas window. The last C-C links are fluid circulation. Permeability is expressed in
cracked at temperatures between 120 and 200°C darcys or ddarcys (mD). Economic produc-
(248 and 392"F), and the H/C ratio decreases tion of oil usually requires a permeability of at
very quickly. The fluid created during matura- least 10 mD, but gas can be produced from tight
TABLE 1 Kerogen classification"
Kerogen classification
Parameter
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
H/C High High Low
o/c Low Low High
Origin Algal, bacterial Marine (zooplankton Terrestrial (wood)
and phytoplankton)
HC potential Very high but rare Memum Very low (gas)
"Courtesy of Total.
1. OIL RESERVOIRS AND OIL PRODUCTION W 5
Van Krevelen Diagram
2.0 .
CO, CH, H,O
1.5
.0-
cE
2
I
1 .o
Catagei ;is
0.5
Zone of gas formation
FIGURE 1 Van Krevelen diagram. (Mocl-
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 fied fiom www.usask.ca/geology/classes/
OIC ratio ge01463/46303.p&.)
formations of less than 1 mD. Two types of rock can stop this upward movement. Cap
permeability are distinguished: horizontal per- rocks have a plastic behavior, characterized by
meabhty and vertical permeability. Generally, the ability to deform without breaking. They
vertical permeability is about 1 order of mag- are characterized by very low porosity and
nitude smaller than horizontal permeabihty. permeability. Cap rocks are often shale, clay,
The total amount of oil trapped in a petro- anhydrite, evaporate, or salt but sometimes can
leum reservoir, termed the original oil in place, also be tightly formed rocks like sandstone or
depends on porosity and saturation. Fluid sat- dolomite. Because of the fine texture of cap
uration corresponds to the volume of fluid per rocks, the capillary pressure of the pore net-
unit of pore volume, expressed as a percentage. work is very high and consequently does not
Oil saturation is never loo%, because a certain allow the circulation of fluids.
amount of water disseminated in the porous
system is always trapped, due to the presence of Trapping
water in the porous volume before the migra- Traps appear and disappear during the burial of
tion of oil into the reservoir. The water cannot sediments because of tectonic movement. The
be completely expelled during the process of oil timing is crucial for the formation of a petro-
migration. leum reservoir; the existence of a good reser-
voir with a sealing cap rock on in the process of
CAP ROCK HC migration is not the usual situation. There
The role of the cap rock is to stop HC migra- are three types of traps: structural, stratigraphic,
tion, thus allowing the formation of a petro- and mixed. Domes and anticlines are structural
leum reservoir. HC liquids and gas are generally types that are often encountered (Fig. 2).
less dense than water, so once they form, they In summary, the existence of petroleum
tend to migrate upwards. Only impermeable reservoirs depends on three types of events:
6 W PLANCKAERT
Stratigraphic Trap Under-discordance Trap
FIGURE 2 Different types of traps. Courtesy of Total.
sedimentation (the creation of different rocks), water environments, where the temperature in
diagenesis and catagenesis (the transformation the reservoir remains quite low compared to the
of organic matter), and tectonic deformation pressure.
(creation of traps). The timing of these events
is very important. Discovery: the Exploration Phase
Exploration is the domain of geologists and
geophysicists. They search for places where
DEFINITION OF DISCOVERY AND
RESERVOIR PROPERTIES there is a good chance to find cap rock, res-
Sedimentary basins have been explored to ervoir rock, source rock, and traps. They study
depths of up to 7 km below the surface by the the geological history of a region or a sedi-
drikng of exploratory oil wells. Since the pres- mentary basin. They use drilling data (logging
sure graIent is 1,000 (hydrostatic) to 2,500 kPa and core analysis), seismic data, and/or analog
(geostatic) per 100 m and the average temper- data to identify potential oil or gas reservoirs.
ature gradient 3°C per 100 m, the temperature Exploration wens are then drilled, and the
and pressure may reach 200°C and 100,000 presence of an HC reservoir is confirmed or
kPa, respectively. not. In recent years, more and more Iscov-
Most discoveries have occurred at 1,000 to eries have been made at great depths or in
4,000 m, 50 to 150°C, and 10,000 to 50,000 deep-water zones as a result of technological
kPa, but more and more discoveries are being progress, particularly in drilling and seismic
made at great depths or in deep-water zones studies and in the ability to develop discovered
(>500 m). Recently, more attention has been fields in such environments.
paid to the biodegradation of petroleum fluids Once a reservoir has been found, a high-
because of significant oil discoveries in deep- resolution seismic survey and/or appraisal wells
1. OIL RESERVOIRS AND OIL PRODUCTION 7
may be necessary to determine its extent more the amount of effective permeability divided
precisely. Studies are made to determine by a reference permeability value, which is
whether exploitation of the reservoir is com- generally that of absolute permeability. Rela-
mercially viable, to decide a development plan, tive permeabilities are a function of the satu-
and to design the surface facilities. To aid these ration of each fluid. They are among the most
studies, fluid flow in the reservoir is simulated important parameters, because they control
with sophisticated computer programs. The flows relative to the others. If oil, gas, and water
reservoir geometry and flow properties are are simultaneously flowing, more complicated
represented by a numerical model, built by relations are found between saturation and
geologists and reservoir engineers with the data relative permeability.
available from the wells and the seismic sur- S,, is the irreducible water saturation,
veys, as well as general geological concepts and i.e., the amount of water that will always be
core analyses. trapped. The more water saturation there is,
the easier fluid displacement will be; fluid dis-
Reservoir Properties placement is measured by relative permeability.
Porosity, wettability, permeability, saturation, So, is the residual oil saturation after water
and capillary pressure are the five most im- injection. At S,,, oil saturation is the most im-
portant properties of reservoir rocks that can portant value, like relative oil permeability.
be measured by core analysis. (Definitions of When oil is produced, oil saturation and relative
porosity and permeability are given in “Res- oil permeability decrease. Therefore, the more
ervoir Rock,” above.) Wettability is the ten- oil is produced, the more difficult it is to pro-
dency of a fluid to spread on or to adhere to a duce (Fig. 4A).
solid surface in the presence of another im- Wettability, defined earlier, has an influ-
miscible fluid (Fig. 3). ence on the characteristic form of the rela-
In dynamic studies, three types of perme- tive permeability curve, as shown in Fig. 5. A
ability are considered: absolute permeability, water-wet rock has higher S,, levels than an
effective permeability, and relative permeabil- oil-wet rock does. Residual oil saturation (S0J
ity. Absolute permeability is given by Darcy’s values are higher for oil-wet rock. The amount
law and is defined in the section “Reservoir of water-relative permeability (kr,) when re-
Rock,” above. Effective permeability is also sidual oil saturation is present is higher for oil-
defined by Darcy’s law, but for each fluid wet rock. Thus, fluid flow in a reservoir will
(water, oil, and gas) if they are present simul- be different for an oil-wet rock and for water-
taneously. Relative permeability is defined as wet rock.
Water wet Oil wet
(J 0s
Rock Surface
B 0s - B ws = B ow cos 8 c (Young - Dupre)
8 c < 90” = water wet
8 c > 90” = oil wet
FIGURE 3 Explanation of wettability. o is the interfacial tension between od and
water, oil and surface, or water and surface. The Young-DuprC equation gives the
value of Qc, which is <90” when the surface is said to be water wet and >90” when
the surface is said to be oil wet Courtesy of Total.