Pests of fruit crops : a colour handbook

462 Pages·2007·53.13 MB·English

by  D V Alford

Pests of
Fruit Crops
A Colour Handbook
David V Alford
BSc, PhD
Formerly Regional Entomologist and
Head of the Entomology Department
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries & Food
Cambridge, UK

MANSON
PUBLISHING
Copyright ©2007 Manson Publishing Ltd
ISBN-10:1-84076-051-6
ISBN-13:978-1-84076-051-4
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Plant Protection Handbooks Series
Alford:Pests of Fruit Crops – A Colour Handbook
Alford:Pests of Ornamental Trees,Shrubs and Flowers – A Colour Atlas
Biddle & Cattlin:Pests and Diseases of Peas and Beans – A Colour Handbook
Blancard:Cucurbit Diseases – A Colour Atlas
Blancard:Tomato Diseases – A Colour Atlas
Blancard:Diseases of Lettuce and Related Salad Crops – A Colour Atlas
Fletcher & Gaze:Mushroom Pest and Disease Control – A Colour Handbook
Helyeret al:Biological Control in Plant Protection – A Colour Handbook
Koike et al:Vegetable Diseases – A Colour Handbook
Murrayet al:Diseases of Small Grain Cereal Crops – A Colour Handbook
Wale et al:Pests & Diseases of Potatoes – A Colour Handbook
Williams:Weed Seedlings – A Colour Atlas
Contents
Preface 7
Chapter 1 Introduction 9
Chapter 2 Smaller insect orders 23
Order Saltatoria (crickets,grasshoppers and locusts) 23
1. Family Tettigoniidae (bush crickets) 23
2. Family Gryllotalpidae (mole crickets) 24
3. Family Acrididae (grasshoppeeers and locusts) 25
Order Dermaptera (earwigs) 26
1. Family Forficulidae 26
Order Isoptera (termites) 27
1. Family Kalotermitidae 27
Order Thysanoptera (thrips) 27
1. Family Thripidae (thrips) 27
2. Family Phlaeothripidae 31
Chapter 3 True bugs 32
1. Family Acanthosomatidae (shield bugs) 32
2. Family Pentatomidae (shield bugs) 32
3. Family Lygaeidae (ground bugs) 34
4. Family Tingidae (lace bugs) 35
5. Family Miridae (capsids or mirids) 37
6. Family Cercopidae (froghoppers) 43
7. Family Flatidae (planthoppers) 45
8. Family Membracidae 46
9. Family Cicadellidae (leafhoppers) 47

10. Family Cixiidae 57
11. Family Psyllidae 57
12. Family Carsidaridae 62
13. Family Aleyrodidae (whiteflies) 63
14. Family Lachnidae 66
15. Family Callaphididae 67
16. Family Aphididae (aphids) 68
17. Family Pemphigidae 95
18. Family Phylloxeridae (phylloxeras) 97
19. Family Diaspididae (armoured scales) 99
20. Family Asterolecaniidae (pits scales) 109
21. Family Coccidae (soft scales,wax scales) 109
22. Family Pseudococcidae (mealybugs) 120
23. Family Margarodidae (giant scales) 122
4
Chapter 4 Beetles 124
1. Family Carabidae (ground beetles) 124
2. Family Scarabaeidae (chafers) 127
3. Family Buprestidae (jewel beetles) 130
4. Family Elateridae (click beetles) 133
5. Family Cantharidae 134
6. Family Bostrychidae 135
7. Family Nitidulidae 135
8. Family Byturidae 136
9. Family Tenebrionidae 138
10. Family Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles) 138
11. Family Chrysomelidae (leaf beetles) 140
12. Family Attelabidae (weevils) 145
13. Family Rhynchitidae (weevils) 146
14. Family Apionidae (weevils) 151
15. Family Curculionidae (true weevils) 152
16. Family Scolytidae (bark beetles) 171
Chapter 5 True flies 175
1. Family Tipulidae (crane flies) 175
2. Family Bibionidae (St. Mark's flies) 177
3. Family Cecidomyiidae (gall midges) 177
4. Family Tephritidae (large fruit flies) 187
5. Family Drosophilidae 190
6. Family Agromyzidae 191
7. Family Muscidae 193
8. Family Anthomyiidae 194
Chapter 6 Butterflies and moths 195
1. Family Hepialidae (swift moths) 195
2. Family Nepticulidae 197
3. Family Tischeriidae 200
4. Family Incurvariidae 202
5. Family Heliozelidae 203
6. Family Cossidae 204
7. Family Zygaenidae 206

8. Family Psychidae 208
9. Family Lyonetiidae 208
10. Family Gracillariidae 211
11. Family Phyllocnistidae 219
12. Family Sesiidae (clearwing moths) 222
13. Family Choreutidae 224
14. Family Yponomeutidae 227
15. Family Schreckensteiniidae 238
16. Family Coleophoridae (casebearer moths) 239
17. Family Oecophoridae 244
18. Family Gelechiidae 247
19. Family Blastobasidae 250
20. Family Momphidae 251
21. Family Cochylidae 252
22. Family Tortricidae (tortrix moths) 253
23. Family Pyralidae 295
24. Family Papilionidae 301
25. Family Pieridae 302
5
26. Family Lycaenidae 304
27. Family Nymphalidae 307
28. Family Lasiocampidae 309
29. Family Saturniidae 314
30. Family Thyatiridae 315
31. Family Geometridae (geometer moths) 315
32. Family Sphingidae (hawk moths) 335
33. Family Notodontidae 343
34. Family Dilobidae 344
35. Family Lymantriidae 345
36. Family Arctiidae (e.g. ermine moths and tiger moths) 351
37. Family Nolidae 354
38. Family Noctuidae 354
Chapter 7 Sawflies,ants and wasps 379
1. Family Pamphiliidae 379
2. Family Cephidae (stem sawflies) 380
3. Family Cimbicidae 381
4. Family Tenthredinidae 383
5. Family Cynipidae (gall wasps) 400
6. Family Eurytomidae (seed wasps) 401
7. Family Torymidae (e.g. seed wasps) 402
8. Family Formicidae (ants) 402
9. Family Vespidae (true wasps) 403
Chapter 8 Mites 405
Order Prostigmata 405
1. Family Phytoptidae (gall mites) 405
2. Family Eriophyidae (gall mites and rust mites) 406
3. Family Tarsonemidae (tarsonemid mites) 419
4. Family Tetranychidae (spider mites) 421
5. Family Tenuipalpidae (false spider mites) 427
Order Cryptostigmata 428
1. Family Mycobatidae 428
Wild or ornamental host plants cited in the text 429

Selected bibliography 433
Host plant index 435
General index 441
6
To Inge,Ingaret,Kerstin,
Michael and Iona
7
Preface
A Colour Atlas of Fruit Pests, published in 1984, Pests are no respecters of international boundaries
reviewed the pests occurring on fruit crops in the British and, over the years, the European fauna has been
Isles and aimed to present a detailed and up-to-date ‘enriched’ by a range of newcomers from many other
account of their recognition, biology and control. Since parts of the world. Conversely, European pests have
1984, accounts of fruit pests in Belgium (De often found a foothold in other continents (notably in
geïntegreerde bestrijding in de fruitteelt by Guido North America), and no doubt others will do so in the
Sterk), Finland (Hedelmä- ja marjakasvien tuhoeläimet future. In spite of modern plant quarantine measures,
by Tuomo Tuovinen) and the Netherlands (Schadelijke movement of pests as a result of international trade or
en nuttige insekten en mijten in fruitgewassenby the late travel (and their subsequent establishment in new areas)
A. van Frankenhuyzen) (all of which include colour is still an ongoing process. The establishment in Italy of
photographs) have also appeared. To date, however, no the American grapevine pest Phyllocnistis vitegenellais
single colour-illustrated text (apart from Schädliche und a recent example; the appearance of this insect in
nützliche Insekten und Milben an Kern- und Steinobst in Europe, however, can in no way be likened to the
Mitteleuropa by the late A. van Frankenhuyzen & H. accidental introduction into Europe in the mid-1800s
Stigter) has attempted to cover the subject on a broader (again from America) of the infamous grape phylloxera,
international scale. which then subsequently devastated the European
In this fully revised and renamed edition of ‘Fruit viticultural industry. The natural drift of species from
Pests’, the scope of the original publication has been country to country is also a continuing phenomenon, at
expanded to encompass pests of fruit crops throughout least in some instances probably encouraged and
Europe. Accordingly, greater emphasis than formerly enhanced by modern-day climate change. Similarly,
has been given to pests of crops such as almond,apricot, details of pest life cycles (including, perhaps, the
peach and grapevine, and information on pests of number of generations in a season) are liable to alter in
subtropical crops (particularly citrus, fig and olive) has the wake of temperature changes and acccording to
been added. The main aims are to provide an illustrated local conditions. Therefore, where cited, dates
account of the various pests to be found in this part of the (months) for the appearance of the various stages of
world and to serve as a source of reference that, pests are intended merely as a general guide. They also
hopefully, will be of interest and value both within apply to Europe and may well be different elsewhere,as

Europe and elsewhere. Indeed,many of the pest species in the Southern Hemisphere.
described in this book, or their close relatives, are The range of fruit pests included in this new book
present in non-European countries and several pose cannot claim to be fully comprehensive,especially in the
problems on fruit crops worldwide. case of minor pests and those of only local or sporadic
For simplicity,as in the first edition,the term ‘fruit’is occurrence. Also,as indicated above,the situation is far
used to embrace not only conventional horticultural from static and ‘new’pests (i.e. new regional or national
fruits, but also hops and nuts (see Chapter 1). Minor records),invasive or otherwise,are being discovered on
temperate fruit crops such as bilberry, cranberry and a regular basis. Conversely,some fruit pests formerly of
strawberry-tree,the fruits of which are largely collected considerable significance are today of lesser importance:
from wild plants (albeit, at least in the case of bilberry apple capsid (Lygocoris rugicollis) is an example. Some
and strawberry-tree, sometimes commercially), and species that might be regarded as pests in some parts of
Cucurbitace (e.g. melon and water melon, which are Europe may be rare (perhaps even protected) species
traditionally considered in tandem with other cucurbit elsewhere. The inclusion of a particular species,
crops such as cucumber, marrow and pumpkin rather therefore, does not necessarily imply that it should
than with fruit crops) are excluded, as are tropical fruit always be regarded as harmful.
crops (such as dwarf banana and mango) which are In view of the wider international coverage,unlike its
grown commercially in Europe on only a very limited predecessor,this new book excludes information on pest
scale and then in only the hottest of regions. control. The pesticides available and the strategies
8
adopted to combat particular pests can differ than a minor irritation. Alternative names for genera and
significantly from country to country,if not from region species (many of which are not strictly synonyms) are
to region; they are also under constant review. Further, excluded from the text, but are cross-referenced in the
particularly in a commercial situation, sustainable pest pest index; such names are restricted mainly to those
management as opposed to simplistic ‘control’ of commonly found in the applied literature and to those
individual pest species is also becoming more widely often still in common usage in crop-protection circles.
practised. Readers seeking information on pest control Where appropriate, vernacular names of species are
or pest management on fruit crops, therefore, should included in the pest entries (several here applied for the
refer to information relevant to their regional or local first time); again, as in the case of scientific names,
circumstances. A relatively recent review of pest frequently used alternatives are cross-referenced in the
management on fruit crops in the UK is included in the pest index.
Pest and Disease Management Handbook, published in Wherever possible, in compiling accounts of the
2000 by Blackwell Science Limited on behalf of various pests, live specimens have been examined and
BCPC (the British Crop Production Council). Other immature stages collected in the field reared through to
information is available in regularly updated booklets adulthood. The help of my family,especially my wife,in
and leaflets produced by agrochemical companies and obtaining material during field trips to various parts of
national or regional extension services. Locally relevant Europe, or in caring for such material during my
on-line electronic services providing information on pest absence,has been invaluable. My thanks are also due to
control may also be available. Alain Fraval (INRA, Paris) for helpful suggestions, to
The inclusion of many more pest species and Stuart C. Gordon, Dr Michael Maixner, Dr Michael G.
information from a wider geographical area has meant Solomon and Tuomo Tuovinen for providing live
that there could be no chapter on natural enemies. The examples of certain pests, and to Dr Chris Malumphy
new text is also restricted to insects and mites. Within (Central Science Laboratory, York) for dealing with
the various chapters, families of pests are arranged numerous queries relating to scale insects.
according to generally accepted systematic systems.
However, for ease of reference, genera within families
(and species within genera) are arranged alphabetically, David V Alford
divisions at subfamily level (for example) being ignored; Cambridge
hopefully, specialist readers will regard this as no more
9
Chapter 1
Introduction
Most fruit pests are insects,a major group of invertebrate and ticks), crustaceans (class Crustacea: crabs, crayfish,
animals belonging to the phylum Arthropoda. Members of lobsters, shrimps and woodlice) and myriapods (class
this diverse and exceedingly successful phylum occur in Myriapoda: centipedes and millepedes) are familiar
all kinds of habitat, on land and in water, and are examples. Insects differ from other arthropods in
characterized by their often hard exoskeleton or body possessing just three pairs of legs,usually one or two pairs
shell, their segmented body and their jointed limbs. In of wings (all winged invertebrates are insects), and by
addition to insects (class Insecta), arachnids (class having the body divided into three distinct regions:head,
Arachnida: harvestmen, mites, pseudoscorpions, spiders thorax and abdomen.
External features of insects
The outer skin or integument of an insect is known as body movement. Appendages,such as legs,are developed
the cuticle. This forms a non-cellular, waterproof layer as outgrowths from the pleurons.
over the body and is composed of chitin and protein, Theheadof an insect is composed of six fused body
the precise chemical composition and thickness segments and carries a pair of sensory antennae, eyes
determining its hardness and rigidity. The cuticle has and mouthparts. The form of an insect antenna varies
three layers (epicuticle,exocuticle and endocuticle) and considerably,the number of antennal segments ranging
is secreted by an inner lining of cells that form the from one to more than a hundred. The basal segment is
hypodermis or basement membrane. When first called the scape; the second segment is the pedicel and
produced, the cuticle is elastic and flexible, but soon from this arises the many-segmented flagellum (each
after deposition it usually undergoes a period of segment of which is termed a flagellomere). In a
hardening or sclerotization and becomes more or less geniculate (elbowed) antenna, the pedicel acts as the
darkened by the addition of a chemical called melanin. articulating joint between the often greatly elongated
The adult cuticle is not replaceable, ex cept in certain scape and the flagellum; such antennae are
primitive insects. However, at intervals during the characteristic of certain weevils,bees and wasps. Many
growth of the immature stages (larvae and nymphs),the insects possess two compound eyes, each composed of
‘old’hardened cuticle becomes too tight and is replaced several thousand facets, and three simple eyes called
by a new,initially expandable,one secreted from below. ocelli,the latter usually forming a triangle at the top of
The insect cuticle is often thrown into ridges and the head. Compound eyes are large and especially well
depressions, is frequently sculptured or distinctly developed in insects, such as predators, where good
coloured and may bear a variety of spines and hairs. In vision is important. The compound eye provides a
larvae, body hairs often arise from hardened plates or mosaic (rather than a clear) picture, but is well able to
wart-like pinacula, tubercles and verrucae. In some detect movement. The ocelli are optically simple and
groups,as in beetles (order Coleoptera),features of the lack a focusing mechanism; they are concerned mainly
adult cuticle (such as colour,sculpturing or texture) are with registering light intensity, enabling the insect to
of considerable value in distinguishing between species. distinguish between light and shade. Insect mouthparts
The basic body segment of an insect is divided into are derived from several modified, paired appendages;
four sectors (a dorsal tergum, a ventral sternum and two they range from simple biting jaws (mandibles) to
lateral pleurons) which often form horny,chitinized plates complex structures for piercing, sucking or lapping.
called sclerites. These may give the body an armour-like Amongst plant-feeding (phytophagous) insects, biting
appearance and are either fused rigidly together or are mouthparts are found, for example, in adult and
joined by soft,flexible,chitinized membranes to allow for immature grasshoppers, locusts, earwigs and beetles,