Perspectives on Science and the Christian Faith , Volume 63, Number 3, September 2011

76 Pages·0.984 MB·English

by  American Scientific Affiliation

PERSPECTIVES on Science
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In This Issue …
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H Evangelicals, Creation, and Scripture:
Legacies from a Long History
Biological Complexity
V Of Molecules and (Straw) Men: A Response to
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U Dennis Venema’s Review of Signature in the Cell
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3 Intelligent Design, Abiogenesis, and Learning from
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U History: A Reply to Meyer
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R The Two Books Metaphor and Churches of Christ
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“The fear of the Lord
is the beginning of Wisdom.”
Psalm 111:10
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VOLUME 63, NUMBER 3 SEPTEMBER 2011
(USISSN0892-2675) (CPM#40927506)
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Editorial
A Brief Excursion in
Chemistry: “God-Talk”
in Chemistry? Arie Leegwater
R
ecently, I wrote a review of two collections are no longer treated only as external factors that,
of philosophical essays by Eric Scerri for a in particular circumstances, may have retarded or
British journal. The books were devoted to advanced the internal development of valid scien-
philosophyofchemistryandissuesofchemicalpeda- tific conclusions. Religious beliefs are taken seri-
gogy. As I composed the review, I began thinking, ously in the task of understanding not only the
“Would such reviews be of interest and value to context, but also the content of scientific practice.
readers of PSCF?” On the face of it, the books con-
By careful examination, one can often find a
tained no references to God, to humans’ calling in
person in his or her scientific work by noting the
the world, or to the science/religion relationship—
problems chosen, how they are formulated, the
notasinglewhiffofatheologyofscience.So,should
experimental evidence marshaled, and the percep-
we simply not care and rule such reflection beyond
tion of the range and scope of a theory. Take the
the pale? Must, in fact, all we do be directly related
case of Wilhelm Ostwald, a Nobel Prize winner in
to “God-talk”? A better approach to take, I would
chemistry (1909). Ostwald wanted to develop a
argue,istoascertainwhichphilosophical,metaphys-
general chemistry (an “allgemeine Chemie”) which
ical, and religious starting points radiate through a
wouldundergirdallthesubspecialtiesofchemistry.
scientist’s presentation and formulations. For some
Ostwald’sdesirewastoreconstructandreformulate
of us, an inviting option could be to return to an
the principles of chemistry along more general and
earlier time when “God-talk” was in the air, before
intuitive lines. Energy and its transformations were
the secularization of science took hold. But clearly,
to be the cornerstone for Ostwald’s science of ener-
it will not do to become nostalgic about a historical
getics. He considered matter to be nothing but a
“golden age” when persons such as Jan Luyken
complex of energy factors. Energy has a right (in
(Amsterdam, 1694) could describe chemists as
additiontospaceandtime)tobeacentralconceptin
“scheiders” [as practitioners of the art of separation
sciencesince“everythingthathappensisinthefinal
or “scheikunde”], able todivide evenbodyand soul.
instance nothing but a change of energy.” Atomic
Classical philosophy of science has centered on models or atoms are nothing but “graven images”
theory validation: the weighing of theories and the as he described them in his famous 1895 Lübeck
validityofscientificknowledge.Amorerecentfocus address, “Overcoming Scientific Materialism.”
hasbeenonconsideringscienceasprocessandprac-
The strength of Ostwald’s energeticist position
tice: “What are the historical conditions under
in chemistry is also its major weakness. He wanted
which, and the means with which, things are made
to stress the fundamental importance of dynamics
into objects of knowledge?” (Hans-Jörg Rhein-
(reaction velocities) initially, and subsequently
berger). This contextualization of science has gone
energytransformationsattheexpenseofmorestruc-
hand-in-handwithagrowingawarenessofthevital
turalquestions.Therelativelyabstractmathematical
role that religious beliefs and commitments have
description of energy and its exchange requires the
played in the shaping and elaboration of scientific
intentional isolation, either theoretically or experi-
worldviewsandpictures.Thesebeliefsarenolonger
mentally, of a physical system, and a conscious
regarded as embarrassing for the reputation of a
neglect of its typical properties and structure. This
greatscientist,noraretheysummarilydismissedas
neglect—or better yet, reduction—of subsuming
irrelevant to scientific practice. Furthermore, they
Volume63,Number3,September2011 145
Editorial
ABriefExcursioninChemistry:“God-Talk”inChemistry?
typical properties as instantiations of a general law, a concerted effort to eradicate religion from science
rancountertothemajorthrustofnineteenth-century byasubstitutereligionbasedonenergy.Bycontrast,
chemistry.Ostwaldemployedabroadrangeofargu- in Coulson, we can admire a valiant effort to be
ments:scientific,methodological,philosophical,and a Christian in his scientific practice, his vocabulary
religious.ThelatterismanifestinOstwald’scommit- and phraseology giving evidence of that effort.
ment that the energy principle be an explanatory Clearly, to demarcate religion and science is more
principleofcosmicproportions:itwouldbeanener- subtle than we often assume.
geticscompletewithatheoryofhappiness,anency-
Note
clopedia of the sciences, a theory of spirituality, an
1CharlesA.Coulson,“TheContributionsofWaveMechanics
energetic understanding of consciousness, an argu-
to Chemistry,” The 1951 Tilden Lecture, Journal of the
mentforEsperanto,andnumerousSundaysermons
ChemicalSociety(1955):2084.
(fifty-two in all), many of which exhorted his
listeners to conserve energy. Arie Leegwater, Editor
[email protected] (cid:2)
Similar fine-grained considerations can be em-
ployed to examine the work of chemists such as
Linus Pauling (1901–1994) and Charles A. Coulson
(1910–1974). Coulson, for example, described the
contributions of wave mechanics to chemistry in In This Issue
these words:
You must surely have been struck by the way Severalofthearticlesinthisissuereflectlong-lasting
in which, all along, modern wave mechanics has andintensediscussionsintheChristiancommunity.
takenupideasofthepast,andrefurbishedthem.
Historian Mark Noll (University of Notre Dame)
Howastonishinglyfruitfulhavebeenthosesemi-
leadsoffwithanarticlethatspecifiesfifteenattitudes,
formulatedconceptsoftheclassicalchemists:and
assumptions,andconvictionsthathaveshapedevan-
how necessary, in a sense, it has been for wave
gelical reflection on the interaction of Christianity
mechanics to give flesh and blood to the spirit
and science. Two biologists, Harry Cook and Hank
which it has inherited … At every turn we have
Bestman(King’sUniversityCollege),provideastudy
seen how wave mechanics has taken their work
of the emerging discipline of biological complexity,
andhasaddedtoitthequalityofadeeperunder-
as it teases out the nuanced interactions of a cell’s
standing.1
cytoplasm and nucleus. This article is followed by
Onthefaceofit,Coulsondescribesthedevelopment
a long-awaited author exchange between Stephen
of wave mechanics in chemistry, but yet on closer
Meyer (Discovery Institute) and Dennis Venema
examination, the statement, particularly the phrase,
(Trinity Western University) centered on Venema’s
“give flesh and blood to the spirit which it [wave
essay book review (PSCF 62, no. 4 [2010]: 276–83) of
mechanics]hasinherited,”revealsawholenewhori-
Meyer’s recent book, Signature in the Cell: DNA and
zon of interpretation.Is it a meremetaphorical turn,
the Evidence for Intelligent Design. Next is an essay
for example, as we find expressed in such titles as
book review by Daniel Brannan (Abilene Christian
Science Incarnate: Historical Embodiments of Natural
University)ofReconcilingtheBibleandScience:APrimer
Knowledge, edited by Christopher Lawrence and
on the Two Books of God, written by two members of
Steven Shapin? Or does it rather reflect a different
theChurchofChristfaithcommunity,attemptingto
reading or narrative of the world? In this case, it is
“fullyintegrateevolutionarythoughtintotheology.”
aChristianincarnationalone:naturenotreadfirstof
allasmechanism,butasGod’sincarnationalinvolve- The book review section and two letters to the
ment with the earth. editor, written in response to previously published
articles, complete the issue.
But back to the question at hand: Does the prac-
ticeofsciencenecessarilyrequire“God-talk,”thatis, A last reminder: The deadline for submitting
mustitinvolveaformoftheism?Ifwethinkitmust, papers for the forthcoming special issue of PSCF
we will miss the religious dynamic operative in on “Responsible Technology and Issues of Faith” is
a scientist such as Ostwald. For Ostwald, we see September 30, 2011 (see p. 182 for details).
146 PerspectivesonScienceandChristianFaith
Article
Biological Complexity
Harry Cookand Hank D. Bestman
Complexityisoftendefinedinthelanguageofmathematics,computers,orinformation
theory. We examine biological complexity as it occurs in the cytoplasm’s relation to
Harry Cook
nuclear function, and in the case of epigenetics. In the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, the pendulum swings between appreciation of biological holism and
complexity, and reductionism. During the second half of the twentieth century,
complexity gains anewappreciation and emergesasafield ofstudy in its ownright.
We propose a description of biological complexity that includes the functional
dynamics of the various structural components of biological organisms and their
levels of functioning, with the higher levels imposing boundaries on the lower levels.
We suggest that this complexity reveals the wisdom of the Creator.
W
hat is complexity? That is Gregor Mendel are intimately related to
acomplexquestion!Thatis, theactivitiesofthechromosomesinmei- Hank D. Bestman
the answers are complex, osis. The establishment of nucleic acid
and they depend on whom you ask. as the carrier of heredity, then the dis-
In this article, we will discuss biological covery of the structure of DNA, and, fi-
complexity, using the relation between nally,itsrolesininheritanceandprotein
nucleus and cytoplasm, and epigenetics synthesis present us with a fascinating
as examples. We will provide a brief journeyofdiscovery.Withthisemphasis
history of biological complexity and onthenucleusandnucleicacids,therole
describethedifficultiesindefiningcom- of the cytoplasm in various functions is
plexity, in general, and biological com- often underestimated, but it is gaining
plexity, in particular. Then we will attention at present. In this section, we
propose a characterization of what con- attempttodescribeaholisticviewofcell
stitutesbiologicalcomplexity.Inkeeping functions as they pertain to cellular
with common parlance, we use “com- complexity.
plex” and “complicated” (and their
accompanyingnouns)moreorlessinter- HarryCookandHankD.BestmanmetatDordtCollege,inSiouxCenter,
Iowa, in the late nineteen seventies; Cook as faculty member, Bestman as a
changeably. As we go along, it will
student.TheybothmovedtoEdmonton,Alberta,Canada,in1979,Bestmanto
become clear that “complexity” is also
takeupgraduatestudies,Cooktotakeafacultypositionatthenewlyopened
a topic that has given rise to distinct
King’s University College. Cook carried out research on fish endocrinology
views about the nature of biology and and followed his interests in the history and theory of biology. He is now
theentities it studies. emeritusprofessorofbiologyandisscheduledtoteachhishistoryofbiology
course one more time this fall.
Hank D. Bestman is Vice-President Academic (interim) and professor of
Cellular Complexity: The biology and biochemistry at the King’s University College in Edmonton,
Alberta, Canada. He teaches courses in biochemistry and mathematical
Gene-Centered Approach
modelinginbiology.AfterhisundergraduatestudiesatDordtCollege,where
The nucleus of the cell stands out. With Cook was one of his mentors, he earned his MSc and PhD in plant science
fromtheUniversityofAlberta.In1987hejoinedCookasafacultymember
standardhistologicaltechniques,thenu-
inthebiologydepartmentattheKing’sUniversityCollege.Hehasanactive
cleus is much more noticeable than the
experimental research program with undergraduate students focusing on
outline of the cytoplasm. The chromo-
carbonmetabolisminalgaeandcomputationalmodelingofcellulardynamic
somes in meiosis and mitosis present a processes. Since the rise of systems biology, he has focused his theoretical
fascinating vista of structure and func- reflections on the relationship between bio-complexity and emergence in the
tion. The genetic ratios observed by context of a systems biology approach to understanding organisms.
Volume63,Number3,September2011 159
Article
BiologicalComplexity
Mendelandhisrediscoverersworkedincontinen- cusses the “nuclear monopoly” and the disregard
talEurope;however,thenewsubdisciplineofgenet- for developmental processes which bring about the
ics was especially influential and successful in the effectsofgenes;shespeaksof“thediscourseofgene
Anglo-Saxon world. The contributions of William action.”6 That is, many geneticists were content to
Bateson in England, and of Thomas Hunt Morgan speak of gene action without knowing the mecha-
in the United States, are particularly significant. nisms by which these actions were achieved. Keller
Bateson was an established and respected British cites Morgan’s comments, relevant to the topic of
biologist when he heard of Mendel’s work, and of this article:
its rediscovery. He coined the word “genetics” and, Itisclearthatwhateverthecytoplasmcontributes
together with Reginald Punnett, worked vigorously todevelopmentisalmostentirelyundertheinflu-
to establish genetics as a field of study in Britain.1 enceofthegenescarriedbythechromosome,and
Mendelian genetics progressed rapidly in the few therefore may in a sense said to be indifferent.7
years between its rediscovery and the publication
Not all cell biologists agreed with this statement
of one of Bateson’s major works in 1909.2 Bateson
by Morgan; Jan Sapp reviewed the early biological
translated Mendel’s pioneering article into English,
literature that stresses the role of the cytoplasm.8
and he broadened Mendel’s theory to include more
Embryologists, who continued to remind cell biolo-
organisms, including animals. Through his work,
gistsoftheimportanceofthecytoplasm,stressedthat
along with that of others, genetics developed into
all cells of an early-stage embryo receive the same
a discipline that was separate from the study of
hereditary information, and that it is the cytoplasm
reproduction in general. Bateson also kept in mind
thatgivestheimpetusfortheearlydifferentiationof
the importance of the whole organism and the
cells. Even Morgan reminded biologists,
connection between genes and embryological
The implication in most genetic interpretation is
development.3
thatallthegenesareactingallthetimeinthesame
Morgan, the American geneticist, continued the way. This would leave unexplained why some
trendestablishedbyBateson,andcontributedmuch cells of the embryo develop in one way, some in
another, if the genes are the only agents in the
to our understanding of genetics. Switching from
results.9
embryology to the new science of genetics, he
adopted the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, as his Thus, embryologists were emphatic in pointing out
research organism. This was a brilliant choice, and the role of the zygotic cytoplasm, and the complex
agreatnumberofkeydiscoveries,suchasmutation, interaction between nucleus and cytoplasm.10
linkage, sex linkage, crossing over, and the giant
In continental Europe, biologists were less enam-
chromosomes, followed. This work did much to
ored by the Mendelian paradigm and more reticent
supplyabiologicalbasisforMendel’slaws.Morgan
to ignore the role of the cytoplasm and the mecha-
trained several graduate students who became
nisms that linked genes and their effects. Paul
accomplished geneticists in their own right; Alfred
Weindling describes the various ways in which
H.Sturtevant,CalvinBridges,andH.J.Mullerstand
German biologists of the late eighteenth and early
out.4 Like Bateson, Morgan began his biological
nineteenth centuries used their excellent micro-
careerasanembryologist;hisimpressivefindingsin
scopes and cytological skills to study the roles of
heredity hastened the separation of genetics from
the cytoplasm.11 Keller states,
other fields of study in reproduction. Throughout
his life, he retained his interest in embryology, The nucleus was the domain in which American
genetics staked its unique strengths, associated
but when he was engaged in his work in genetics,
with American interests (and prowess), whereas
he deemed the relationship between genetic factors
the cytoplasm was associated with European,
and their effects to be of secondary importance.
especially German, interests and prowess.12
In1926,hestatedthat“thesortingoutofthecharac-
ters in successive generations can be explained … In a chapter entitled “Challenging the Nuclear
without reference to the way in which the gene Monopoly of the Cell in Germany,” Sapp discusses
affects the developmental process.”5 thistopic,emphasizingthatmanyGermanbiologists
saw the importance of the new genetics but, at the
Inaperceptivediscussion,EvelynFoxKellerdis-
160 PerspectivesonScienceandChristianFaith
HarryCookandHankD.Bestman
same time, espoused more holistic views, and that thathewasnotawareoftheabsolutistconnotations
they studied the entire cell, including the role of the oftheword“dogma,”andthatheuseditinthesense
cytoplasm.13 of “grand hypothesis.”19 The nature of the genetic
code and mechanisms of protein synthesis were
Because the sperm possesses little or no cyto-
worked out not long afterwards, in the mid-1960s.
plasm whereas the egg contributes almost all of
the cytoplasm of the zygote, Keller suggests that Howard Temin’s and David Baltimore’s discov-
the indifference toward the role of the cytoplasm of ery of RNA retroviruses and the enzyme, reverse
embryosisalsoduetoagenderbias.Theroleofthe transcriptase, for whichthey received a Nobel Prize
cytoplasmic dowry, as it has been called, has too in1975(sharingitwithRenatoDulbecco),appeared
often been ignored. Yet, it is also remarkable that to contradict the Central Dogma, because in these
many of the embryologists, investigating the role viruses,thefirststep,inwhichtheRNAofthevirus
of the cytoplasm, maternal effects, and the field of directs the synthesis of a daughter DNA, goes
embryology generally, were women.14 againsttheflowofthedogma.20Inspiteofthesefind-
ings, Crick, in 1970, reiterated the Central Dogma,
With the discovery of the structure of DNA in
emphasized its value and applications in molecular
1953,theattentionfell,onceagain,onthenucleusof
biology, and gave it the familiar short form that
the cell. James Watson and Francis Crick opened we recognize so well: DNA (cid:2) RNA (cid:2) Protein.21
their one-page letter to Nature with these well-
This formulation, while appearing to reemphasize
knownlines,“Wewishtosuggestastructureforthe
the nuclear dogma, also hints at the importance the
saltofdeoxyribosenucleicacid(D.N.A.).Thisstruc-
cytoplasmwillbeshowntohave.RecombinantDNA
ture has novel features which are of considerable
technology would again emphasize the importance
biological interest.” Near the end of the paper they
of DNA in bacteria,22 and, later, of DNA in the
add, “It has not escaped our notice that the specific
nucleus in plants and animals. Successful applica-
pairing we have postulated immediately suggests
tion of this technology in higher organisms would,
a possible copying mechanism for the genetic mate-
however, depend on a thorough understanding of
rial.”15Withintwentyyears,thenatureofthegenetic
the role of RNAs and protein synthesis in the cyto-
code, the role of the several RNAs and the ribo-
plasm, and of cell function in general.
somes,andthecontrolofproteinsynthesisbyDNA,
via RNA, were elucidated.16 Sequencing of DNA, although laborious at first,
was aided by the development of the polymerase
In1958,Crickpublishedafascinatingpaperwhich
chain reaction23 and improved sequencing tech-
outlined the triumphs and challenges of molecular
niques and equipment. These developments were
biologyatthetime.17Herecognizedthesequenceof
paralleled by the identification and characterization
nucleotidesintheDNAofthenucleustobethecode
of genes for human traits and illnesses, and opti-
for the incorporation of twenty basic amino acids
mismaboutthetreatmentof somediseases seemed,
intoproteinchains.RNAwasseentobeakeyinthis
at times, little more than a ploy for increased
incorporation,whichoccurredinthecytoplasm,and
research funding. In 1992, Richard C. Lewontin
he also stated that there was more than one type of
expressed his reservations:
RNA.TheDNAcodewasnotyetknownatthistime,
According to the vision, we will locate on the
and Crick launched several hypotheses about the
human chromosomes all the defective genes that
natureofthecode:itwouldhavetobeatripletcode,
plagueus,andthenfromthesequenceoftheDNA
but that still allowed for several possibilities.18 He
wewilldeducethecausalstoryofthediseaseand
alsoformulated,inthetextofthepaper,butnotinits
generateatherapy.Indeed,agreatmanydefective
presentsuccinctform,theCentralDogma:thatDNA
genes have already been roughly mapped onto
controlsthesynthesisofRNA,andRNAthatofpro-
chromosomesand,withtheuseofmoleculartech-
teins,andthatthisordercannotbereversed.Hewas niques,afewhavebeenverycloselylocatedand,
emphatic that information could not pass from pro- for even fewer, some sequence information has
teinstonucleicacids.Consideringwhatwasknown been obtained. But causal stories are lacking and
about these matters at the time, Crick’s hypothesis therapies do not yet exist; nor is it clear, when
mustbeconsideredastrokeofgenius.Heprofessed actual cases are considered, how therapies will
Volume63,Number3,September2011 161
Article
BiologicalComplexity
flow from a knowledge of DNA sequences.24 so complicated in some cases that they have been
Some of Lewontin’s critique is still relevant today. referred toas “hairballs.”31
This complexity of gene-effect relationships is
It is clear that the next step to be taken would be
examined and highlighted by Evelyn Fox Keller in
thesequencingofthehumangenome.Itwasspoken
ofastheHolyGrailofmolecularbiology.25Thepro- TheCenturyoftheGene.32Inherbook,Kellerlaudsthe
Human Genome project because it has changed our
jectstartedin1990undertheleadershipofJamesD.
conceptofthegeneandourideasaboutgeneticsand
Watson,anditsprogressgainedspeedassequencing
proteinsynthesis.Intheearlydaysofgenetics,“gene
equipment improved. Craig Venter, working at a
action” was assumed to take place without need of
private firm, Celera Genomics, used different tech-
explanation; when this action was investigated in
niques(“theshotgunapproach”)toestablishhisver-
sion of the genome.26 laboratoriesallovertheworld,thecomplexityofthe
processes was found to be astounding.33 DNA was
The joint announcement of the completion of a foundtobeofseveralkinds:coding,regulating,and
first draft of the human genome, on Monday, June somewaslabeled,perhapsprematurely,as“junk.”34
26,2000,wasamomentousoccasion.Thepresenceof Split genes, alternative splicing, genes coding for
President Bill Clinton, and his role in bringing the several proteins, depending on how they were
principalsofthepublicandprivatesequencinginsti- “read,” and post-transcriptional modification, added
tutestogether,certainlymadeitthat.FrancisCollins, tothecomplexity.Singleproteinswerefoundtohave
who had become the head of the Human Genome several functions, depending on regulatory mecha-
Project, and Venter had agreed to bridge the differ- nisms. When it came to hereditary illnesses, some
ences between the public and private approaches to were found to have simple genetic causes, whereas
enablethejointannouncementtobemade.27Collins the explanation for others was said to lie in the dis-
has described various aspects of his life, his work, tant future.35 Keller states that “the function of the
and his views in two books.28 structural gene depends not only on its sequence
but, as well, on its genetic context, on the chromo-
Wehavedescribedtheimportanceofthenucleus,
somal structure in which it is embedded …, and on
of genes, and of DNA, and have also described the
itsdevelopmentallyspecificcytoplasmicandnuclear
tendency in the biological establishment to isolate
context.”36 She also reexamines the complexity of
their role from other cell functions and to over-
how a “genetic program” shapes the developing
emphasizetheirimportance.Thistendencyhasbeen
embryo. Keller concludes that the classic image of
strengthened by the dominance of gene-centered
the gene will be difficult to replace, because its
approaches to the study of animal and human
replacement will shatter a popular icon.37 Further-
behavior, such as sociobiology, behavioral ecology,
more,“genetalk”isaneffectivetoolforpersuasion,
and evolutionary psychology.29
for funding applications, and for marketing gene-
based products.38
Cellular Complexity:
A critique of Keller’s views from proponents of
The Cytoplasm Strikes Back a more traditional gene-centered view was not long
incoming.39However,forourpurposes,itisimpor-
Thesimplicityof“ageneforthisandageneforthat”
tant to note that both sides of the debate would be
would soon be shaken by the sheer complexity of
quick to agree that the relationship between DNA
genetic mechanisms withinthecell. “Life is Compli-
andtheproteinsproducedinthecellisanextremely
cated” proclaims the title of a recent article by Erika
complicatedone;itinvolvesmanynuclearandcyto-
CheckHayden.30Inthearticle,shedescribes,among
plasmicprocesses.Knowledgeofcellularcomplexity
otherthings,that“web-likenetworks”betterportray
isoftheutmostimportanceinorderforvariousbio-
the multiple pathways between many genes and
technologies and cell and tissue culture techniques
their products and effects. She illustrates this with
to be successful.
one protein, p53, which can bind to and inhibit a
DNA site, can bind to thousands of RNA sites, and, Thebeautifulstructureofmembranousorganelles
due to a process called alternate splicing, can take in eukaryotic cells (cells with nuclear and other
ninedifferentforms.Theseweb-likenetworkscanbe intercellular membranes) was a source of wonder
162 PerspectivesonScienceandChristianFaith
HarryCookandHankD.Bestman
and fascination when transmission electron micro- subjectofintensestudy.47Thiscomplexityisleading
scopes came into common use in the middle of the cell biologists to more holistic views of the cell.
previous century. Excellent high-resolution pictures
of mitochondria, chloroplasts, and Golgi bodies,
Epigenetic Inheritance
publishedbyDonW.Fawcett,heightenedthissense
ofwonder.40Discoveredin1890byRichardAltmann Epigeneticinheritance,atopicthatisreceivingmuch
and named in 1898 by Karl Benda,41 mitochondria attention in biological literature, is our second illus-
are now known to provide energy in a form usable tration of biological complexity. When discussing
by the cell for all kinds of processes. cellular differentiation in the embryo, we noted that
it was caused by cytoplasmic factors, most of which
The implications of the discovery that mitochon-
were derived from the egg. When it is passed from
dria contain DNA are discussed in detail by Nick
onecellgenerationtoanother,thisdifferentiationhas
Lane.42 Each of the many mitochondria in a eukary-
beencalledan“epigeneticinheritancesystem.”48Epi-
otic cell contains several circular strands of DNA;
genetic changes are “heritable variants that are not
these circular strands resemble the configuration of
due to changes in DNA sequence.”49 Eva Jablonka
bacterial DNA.Thismitochondrial DNAwasfound
and Marion J. Lamb have discussed various epige-
tocodeforsomeoftheproteinsthatfunctioninmito-
netic phenomena in a recent book.50 These mecha-
chondria.Theyarematernallyinheritedbecauseova,
nisms are not dependent on the primary sequences
butnotsperm,passonmitochondriatothezygote.43
of DNA, and theydonotreplace thegeneticmecha-
In a paper and a book, Lynn Margulis suggests that
nisms that are commonly described in genetics
mitochondria are derived from a symbiotic union
textbooks.
ofaunicellularorganismandaprokaryoteinapro-
cessshecalledendosymbiosis.44Thiswouldexplain Theadditionofmethylgroupstospecificcytosine
the similarity between bacterial and mitochondrial basesinDNApreventstheproductionofmessenger
DNA. RNA (“transcription”) in the nucleus. This “silenc-
ing” of genes increases when the methylation is
Ingreenorganisms,chloroplasts,thesiteofphoto-
more extensive. The methylation is heritable, i.e., it
synthesis, have also been found to contain DNA.
is passed on in an organism from one generation of
In 1905, Konstantin Mereschkowski postulated that
cells to another. The types of DNA that are methyl-
chloroplasts arose by cells incorporating green
ated have been identified to some extent, and the
photosyntheticunicellularorganisms.45Margulisin-
methylation process has also been linked to some
cluded chloroplasts in her theory mentioned above.
kindsofcancer.51Newsequencingmethodscannow
Similar to mitochondrial DNA, chloroplasmic DNA
detect the presence of methylation in DNA.
alsocodesforproteinsthatareinherenttothefunc-
tion of the organelle, in this case, the chloroplast. Modification of histones represents another epi-
genetic mechanism. Chromosomes are made up of
Cytoplasmic DNA, particularly mitochondrial
DNA,andofproteinslargelyconsistingofhistones.
DNAs, have provided fascinating insights into hu-
These histones can be modified by acetylation, de-
man evolution, and into cellular function.46 Impor-
acetylation,ormethylation,ortheycanbemodified
tantforthetopicofthisarticleisthatitisalsoacrack
in other ways.52 These changes can increase or de-
in the wall of the “nuclear monopoly,” and another
creasetranscriptionandtheycanbepassedonfrom
demonstrationoftheimportanceofthecytoplasmin
onecellgenerationtothenext,thuscreatinganother
hereditary mechanisms of the cell.
epigenetic mechanism.53
The whole cell, nucleus (or the circular chromo-
RNAs, from 21 to 24 nucleotides long, can also
some in prokaryotes) and cytoplasm, carries out
function in epigenetic mechanisms. Such RNAs
many metabolic and reproductive tasks. DNA is of
“span all eukaryotic kingdoms in their distribu-
theutmostimportanceintheseactivities,but,aswe
tion…They…serveasmolecularsignpoststoiden-
hope we have demonstrated, the picture of DNA as
tify targets of silencing: retroviruses, retrotrans-
a simple one-to-one code for protein synthesis is
posons, aberrantly expressed genes, and normal
nolongertenableorprevalentamongcellbiologists.
developmental loci.”54 The source of these RNAs
The multifarious activities of the cytoplasm are the
Volume63,Number3,September2011 163
Article
BiologicalComplexity
hasbeenstudied,andthey,too,arenowconsidered wasthorough.WhiletheEnlightenmentemphasized
to be part of the epigenetic machinery of the cell. scepticism and exalted reason and science, romanti-
cism in biology (or “natural philosophy,” as Erik
Epigenetic mechanisms are varied. The ones we
Nordenskiöldandotherscallit59)accentuatedimagi-
have described interact with each other, and there
nation over observation, and showed a fascination
are other mechanisms, assumed to be epigenetic,
withvitalforcesandapredilectiontospinoverarch-
that are not included in our short survey. Because
ing speculative theories. Arthur Lovejoystates:
they are acquired characteristics that are passed
The God of the seventeenth century, like its gar-
from one cell generation to another, they are often
deners,alwaysgeometrized;theGodofRomanti-
described as Lamarckian patterns of inheritance.55
cismwasoneinwhoseuniversethingsgrewwild
andwithouttrimmingandinalltherichdiversity
Other Complexities
of their natural shapes.60
In a discussion of the complexity of the living cell, It is safe to say that accepting complexity was not
which they term “BioComplexity,” Bruggeman, a problem for romantic biologists.
Westerhoff, and Boogerd point to the usefulness of
One of romanticism’s most accomplished repre-
reductionistic and nonreductionistic approaches in
sentatives, Johannes Peter Müller, had many inter-
thestudyofthecell.56Theysuggestthatthecomplex-
ests.Inanearlypaper,hespeculatedaboutnumbers
ity of the living cell should not be ignored, and that
and identities in biology, a speculative work which
recognition of this complexity has brought new life
helatertriedtodestroy.Hethencontinuedthework
tothediscussionofsystemsbiologyandemergence.
of Goethe and Purkinje on sensory perception; this
Thecomplexityofbiologicalphenomenaisreceiving
affected his mental well-being. Later in his life, he
renewedattention,andthereisanincreasingaware-
studied nerves, muscles, and other organ systems,
ness of the incompleteness of molecular and reduc-
and carried out marine research. Müller illustrates
tionist explanations in biology, as valuable as these
thatresearcherscouldmovefromthepurestspecula-
may bein their ownright.
tionattheheightofromanticismtobiologicallabora-
There are other levels of functioning within biol- tory work that we still find in our textbooks today.
ogythatmanifestcomplexity.Biologytextbooksrou- Nordenskiöld suggests that Müller’s “mental dis-
tinely describe several levels of such functioning, easeinvolvedthedownfallofnaturalphilosophyin
such as organelles, cells, tissues, organs and organ Germany.”61
systems, organisms, populations, communities, eco-
systems, and the biosphere.57 These levels manifest One overarching theory that gained currency in
the romantic age, idealism in biology, suggests that
theirowncomplexities,complexitiesthatarebiologi-
basic building plans, “archetypes” for some, are
cal innature;theycannotbereducedtochemical or
structural laws or types for plants or animals, or
physical phenomena, many theoreticians of biology
large basic groups of plants or animals.62 This pat-
suggest. Such complexities as the regulation of hor-
ternofthinkingalsoleftitsmarkonNorthAmerican
mone levels, the intricacies of animal behavior, and
biology, perhaps most markedly through the lec-
thecontrolofpopulationsizesallneedtohavetheir
turesandwritingsofJ.LouisR.Agassiz.Thispromi-
own place in biology in order to do justice to the
integrityofcreationandthedesignoftheCreator.58 nent Swiss biologist accepted a position at Harvard
University, where he promoted idealistic thinking
Biological Complexity and inmorphologyandclassification.ForAgassiz,types
or forms are created; there are timeless designs for
Its Theoretical Background
taxa, including species. Agassiz would encounter
The topic of complexity often transcends biological a capable opponent in Asa Gray, eminent Christian
discussions and touches upon other disciplines and botanist and friend of Charles Darwin. Gray sug-
philosophy. The huge changes which occurred in gestedthatGodsteerednaturalselectionbyprovid-
Darwin’scenturyhavetobeseeninabroadercontext ing favorable mutations to the process. He debated
in which reductionism was present at times and common descent with Louis Agassiz in writing and
holism at other times. Reaction to the reductionism in public discussions.63
of Enlightenment thinking of the previous century
164 PerspectivesonScienceandChristianFaith