Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith Journal , Vol 65, Number 3, September 2013

76 Pages·0.959 MB·English

by  American Scientific Affiliation

PERSPECTIVES on Science
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In This Psychology-Themed Issue …
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Psychology at the Theological Frontiers
Biological and Environmental Constraints on
Knowing the Self
V
O Deeply Engaged and Strongly Perspectival?
L
U The Impasse in the Psychology-Christianity Dialogue
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and Its Missional Resolution
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5
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U Outsourced Memory: Computers and Conversation
M
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R Moral Enhancement as a Technological Imperative
3
I Sleep a Lot
Unexpected Communion: Purpose,
Vocation, and Developmental Disability
“The fear of the Lord
is the beginning of Wisdom.”
Psalm 111:10
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VOLUME 65, NUMBER 3 SEPTEMBER 2013
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Editorial
Clear
James C. Peterson
W
han dat Aprille vith its shoures soote, That clarity of thought should also be evident
the droghte of Marche hath perced to in the clarity of presentation. The outline should
the roote, and bathed every veyne in be evident in the headings. Short sentences. Short
swich licour of whichvertuengendred is theflour. paragraphs. There is roomfor nuance, butitshould
be presented directly. The content may be challeng-
The previous sentence is English, granted it is ing, but the communication should not be more
theMiddleEnglishthatbeginsCanterburyTales.Itis complex than it has to be.
beautifullyputforthethirteenth-centuryLondoner.
Chaucerhasmuchthatisentertainingandinsightful Being clear does require more work for the
tosay,butheisalmostindecipherabletocontempo- author. Clarity of expression takes greater skill and
rary English readers. Our English is present in that mastery of one’s topic than presenting a lump of
quotation, but “the droghte of Marche hath perced great worth that is not yet mined and refined. But
totheroote,”wouldbemuchmorelikelytoberecog- the work presented in this journal is too valuable
nized today as “the drought of March has pierced to be left inchoate. The author’s task is not only to
to the roots.” present new, relevant, and insightful ideas. It is to
present them in a way that the reader can readily
AnessaysubmittedtoPSCFmaybeontask,new, understand the contribution. The essays that we
andtrue(asdescribedinthelastfeweditorials),but publish are ones that are accurate, fitting, new,
there is no point in its publication if it is not also and clear.
clear.Itisnotenoughthatanarticlemayeventually
be decipherable. Our readers are erudite, but they James C. Peterson,Editor (cid:2)
havetochoosehowtoapportiontheirtime,andthey
cannot be expert in the jargon of every specialty.
Articles in PSCF can be demanding, but they need
to be readable across a wide range of scientific and
theological disciplines.
The point of each article is not just to present In This Issue
material.Itistoevokeunderstanding.Thatrequires
authorstogooutoftheirwaytowriteinawaythat
One year ago, Heather Looy agreed to post on the
eliminates as many byways and dead ends as pos-
ASA and CSCA web sites, an analysis of some of
sible. When the precise terminology of a discipline
thecurrentinteractionsbetweenpsychologyandthe
is useful, it is welcome, but it should be defined,
Christian tradition. That triggered many thoughtful
not assumed. If an insider consensus is relevant,
essays in response. Four of the best follow here. As
thenot-yet-initiatedreaderwillgainfromthatbeing
co-editor for the articles in this psychology-themed
noted. When knowledge of a field’s context helps
issue, Looy ably organized the rigorous peer review
to reveal the importance or force of an argument,
torecognize and developthem.
it warrants explanation. The author needs to think
ahead and provide what the esteemed reader of The first is by Duane Kauffmann and counter-
PSCF might find helpful to recognize the article’s balances part of Looy’s initial essay. He argues that
contribution. thestrivingofpsychologicalscienceforanempirical
Volume65,Number3,September2013 145
Editorial
approach should remain central to sorting through experience and research with the differently abled
the tangle of human self-perception. Next, Russell core members and their assistants at L’Arche.
Kosits calls for scholarship in psychology that is
distinctively Christian in its perspective, and yet Our book review section goes beyond psychol-
so compelling in its insight that it engages and ogy, ranging across the latest conversation between
challenges those outside the Christian tradition. scienceandtheChristiantradition.Then,inaletter,
Noreen Herzfeld warns that the expanding power Kenell Touryan draws from his extensive experi-
of machinememorywill neverreplacetrulyhuman ence of dialogue with scientists who are atheists,
memory, and Gareth Jones describes and tests pro- to extend the analysis of a June issue article on sci-
posals to use technology to shape our brains to ence and atheism. A letter follows from Charles
higher moral achievement. Austerberry that challenges the June essay that
advocated uniformitarianism. The author, Bruce
In Communications, Denis Lamoureux shares a Gordon, replies.
story of healing through medications that repair
brain chemistry. Kevin Reimer then writes of his James C. Peterson,Editor (cid:2)
146 PerspectivesonScienceandChristianFaith
Article
Psychology at the
Theological Frontiers
Heather Looy
Heather Looy
This article is an invitation to dialogue about the foundational assumptions of North
American psychology, and the implications of those assumptions in research and
practice. Mainstream psychology uses a positivist notion of science to systematically
studyhumanexperienceandbehavior.This“viewfromwithout”isavaluablemeans
ofobtainingcertainkindsofinformationaboutourselves.However,theunwillingness
of many in the field to acknowledge the basic worldview assumptions that lead to
the prioritizing of positivist science can limit and distort our human understanding.
Theseproblemsincludeanextremeobjectivism,badreductionsthatleaveoutessential
aspects of human experience, and decontextualized and individualized approaches to
humandistress.Thistypeofscienceisalsousedtostudyreligionandfaithasvariables
ratherthanasfoundationalcontexts,topushforatranshumanfuture,andtoincrease
our disconnection with the natural world. Christians are called to make explicit, and
whereappropriatechallenge,thefoundationalassumptionsofpsychology,tointegrate
the standard “view from without” methods with rigorous methods that take a “view
fromwithin,”andtoreflectontheprioritiesofthefieldinlightofChristiantheology.
P
hilosophers, theologians, poets, poetry.2 Those who wish to explore
storytellers, and many a wakeful thesequestionsphilosophicallycanturn
person longing for self-under- to a rich written tradition that in the
standing ask questions about human West includes Plato, Aquinas, Nietz-
identity and behavior. Who am I? Why sche, and Freud. C. S. Lewis uses story
do I do what I do? And often, why do to paint a picture of human nature:
IdowhatIdonotwishtodo?Weexperi- When young Prince Caspian discovers
enceourselvesasbothfreedbyandfrus- heisthedescendantofpirateswhoacci-
tratingly limited by our physicality, as dentally stumbled through a door
both “embodied spirits and inspirited between worlds and conquered Narnia,
bodies.”1 We wrestle with questions of he says, “I was wishing that I came of
meaning and purpose. Self-understand- a more honorable lineage.” “You come
ing is neither immediately obvious nor of the Lord Adam and the Lady Eve,”
easily obtained. said Aslan, “and that is both honor
enough to erect the head of the poorest
We turn for answers to whatever beggar, and shame enough to bow the
sources of knowledge we value and shoulders of the greatest emperor in
trust.ForthosewhoaccepttheBibleand earth. Be content.”3
the Christian tradition as such a source,
wearebothdustoftheearthandalittle HeatherLooyisProfessorofPsychologyatTheKing’sUniversityCollege
inEdmonton.Shefocusesonbiopsychology,withparticularinterestsingender
lower than the angels, called to care for
andsexuality,food,emotions,andmoraljudgment.Shealsoengagesinscience-
and cultivate the creation (Gen.1:28;
religion dialogue, and co-edited with Heidi A. Campbell, A Science and
Ps.8:4–6). Dietrich Bonhoeffer explored
Religion Primer (Baker Academic).
these questions through theology and
Volume65,Number3,September2013 147
Article
PsychologyattheTheologicalFrontiers
Wegetaratherdifferentpictureofourselveswhen embraced emerged from the Enlightenment and
we turn to psychology. Psychology self-defines as positivistic beliefs in the lawful, mechanical nature
thescienceofhumanbehaviorandmentalprocesses. of creation, and the power of human rationality to
Thisfieldusesaparticular,ratherpositivistic,defini- discover and utilize those laws. We human beings,
tion of science, invoking the language of process, “afterall,arejustextremelycomplicatedmachines.”4
mechanism, probability, prediction, and causation. Our complicated machinery has given rise to a ra-
We mark the beginning of psychology as a separate tionality that enables us somehow to transcend our
discipline at 1879, the year that a German scientist mechanical nature in order to discover and ulti-
by the name of Wilhelm Wundt opened a scientific mately control our own mechanisms. “Technologies
laboratory explicitly dedicated to “experimental of behavior” are the only way we will solve our
psychology” (although Wundt himself defined sci- emotional, behavioral, and social problems.5
ence more broadly than do modern psychologists).
Althoughmanypsychologistsworkinappliedareas Psychologistsrarelyacknowledgethatthismech-
such as counseling or human resource management anistic view of human nature is part of a particular
rather than research, they have virtually all been worldview which, by definition, is neither scientifi-
trained as “scientist-practitioners” and are encour- cally nor logically verifiable. Instead, the culture of
agedtoengagein“evidence-basedpractice.”Inother psychology convinces its students that these world-
words, to be a psychologist is to be a scientist. view beliefs are objective, verifiable truths. Yet, as
long as psychologists claim that they can discover
The heart of this article is an exploration of how fully objective truths about human behavior, they
this self-definition of psychology as a science helps risk failing to notice the limits and distortions of
and hinders our self-understanding. I will focus on their knowledge and close their minds to other
whatmightbecalled“mainstream”NorthAmerican potentially fruitful ways of coming to self-under-
psychology: The theories, practices, and methods standing. The refusal to acknowledge that everyone
acceptedbytheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation has a “view from somewhere” also creates difficul-
(APA)andtheAssociationforPsychologicalScience tiesforChristianswhoengagepsychologicalscience
(APS), the two largest professional organizations in expressly from a Christian worldview.6 Mainstream
the field. Of course, in practice, psychologists draw psychologists treat faith as simply one of a multi-
on a diverse collection of approaches ranging from tude of variables relevant to an objective account
thebiologicaltothesociological,usingmethodsthat of human behavior, rather than the lenses through
include the quantitatively empirical to the phenom- which each one of us, psychological researchers
enological. My narrower focus is not intended to included, engages the world.
exclude or deny this diversity but merely to engage
themostdominantthemesinthefield,inparticular,
Objectivity and Objectivism
those that I believe Christians need most to engage.
Thisisahighlyselectiveandidiosyncraticlistinflu- Studentsenterpsychologicalstudieswithpassionate
enced by my own background as a biopsychologist questions about who we are, why we behave as we
working interdisciplinarily and integratively in the do, and how to deal with emotional or relational
contextofaChristianuniversity.Myintentistospur difficulties. One of the first things they are taught is
dialogue and debate, and I invite readers to correct thatpeoplecannotbetrustedtohaveaccurateinsight
or to expand upon the issues I raise here, and to intotheirownpsyche.Itisthepsychologicalscientist
point out others as needed. alone who, by observing dispassionately from the
outside, can tell people the real reasons for their
behavior or mental states. The psychologist is the
expert, the objective observer, the one in a position
Science and Worldview
toobtain thereal truth.
When we hear “scientists say,” we listen. Science
and scientists are given great authority and power Because of the worldview belief that human
in modern Western culture. The particular view of beingsare“nothingbut”complicatednaturalmech-
science that the early psychologists deliberately anisms, psychologists are taught that we can, for
148 PerspectivesonScienceandChristianFaith
HeatherLooy
the purposes of research, ignore that we are human objectively applying their rationality through the
beings studying ourselves. We view the very traits methods of the natural science (or a caricature
that enable us to study ourselves—our subjective thereof) can actually distort the “truth” of human
experience, meaning-making, self-awareness, unique experience and behavior.
accesstowhatitisliketobehuman—asirrelevantto
self-understanding.Instead,wearetotakeanobjec- Thereisnothingwrongwithtryingtobeobjective
tiveview,orasG.K.Chesterton’sfictionaldetective in the sense of remaining humble about our limita-
Father Brown puts it, “getting outside a man [sic] tions. We are self-serving, self-deceived, and short-
and studying him as if he were a gigantic insect: sighted, accounting for our own behavior in ways
inwhattheywouldcalladryimpartiallight,inwhat consistent with our self-image. Christian theology
Ishouldcalladeadanddehumanizedlight.”7Thisis reminds us that we are both creatures and sinners,
a form of objectivism, a position that “portrays truth limited and distorted. Psychological research into
as something we can achieve only by disconnecting the limits of human reasoning—persistent biases
ourselves,physicallyandemotionally,fromthething ofthought,perception,andemotion—hasconfirmed
we want to know.”8 this age-old truth, and thus there is an important
placeforthe“viewfromwithout.”Weneedtostruc-
Thus, research participants are “subjects” who tureourobservationsoftheworldinsuchamanner
mustbedeceivedsotheycannotadjusttheirbehav- that we minimize the possibility of seeing only that
ior in accordance with their own or the researcher’s which we wish to see. However, we so easily slip
expectations,sothattheybehave“naturally.”While from this sort of humility into the arrogance of
in everyday life behaving “naturally” actually does believing that if we simply use the correct method,
involve making meaning and self-reflection—not we can achieve a truly objective view of the world
just reflexive reactions—these natural processes are and of ourselves. Is it ever possible for us to see
viewed as sources of “error” in positivistic psychol- ourselves from the outside? We are subjective, self-
ogy.9 Participants cannot be trusted to know their aware,compulsivemeaning-makerswhoexperience
realmotivesnoraccuratelypredicttheirresponses— the world in relationship.10 We cannot even perceive
only the researcher has access to that. the external world from the outside; perception is
heavilyinfluencedbyourparticularsensorysystems
Researchers are also suspect. Because they are
andthelanguageandculturalcontextswithinwhich
human, they are “biased,” and this bias must be
we interpret sensory information. How much more
prevented from influencing participants’ behavior difficultitisforustoperceiveourselvesfromtheout-
andtheresearchers’observationsandinterpretations. side.Toactasifwecanandshouldseekaviewfrom
Thusresearchersarerequiredtosystematicallysepa-
without,andatthesametimedismisstheviewfrom
rate themselves from their participants and treat
within, surely deeply distorts our understanding of
each identically to prevent the researchers from
the causes of our behavior.
distorting the “objective truth” of the participants’
motives and behavior. For example, administering Another problem with objectivist methodologies
a standardized intelligence test to young children is the potential for ethically questionable practices.
can involve the tester reading from a script rather Psychologists regularly practice complex and lay-
than adjusting behavior depending on the child’s ered forms of deception to achieve objectivity, and
emotionalstate,despitethefactthatundersuchcon- the consequences of this should lead Christians to
ditionsaconfidentchildmightshowherfullpoten- ask hard questions.11 The claim that such decep-
tial while a timid or anxious child might perform tion is necessary to determine the real truth of
well below his actual ability. Becoming blind to the humanbehaviorisweakenedbythefactthatexperi-
condition or state of the participant being observed mental economists eschew deception in research on
andleavingtheparticipantblindtotheobservations principle.12
and expectations of the researcher are viewed as
laudable goals, and indeed, sometimes they are. Psychologists are not unified in their commit-
However, the contortions researchers undergo to menttoobjectivistresearch.Therehavealwaysbeen
deny their subjective knowledge in the interests of countering voices, as well as researchers who use
Volume65,Number3,September2013 149
Article
PsychologyattheTheologicalFrontiers
methodologiesthatattempttohonorthesubjectivity reducedisusuallybiology.Itiscertainlymucheasier
and relationality of the researcher and participant.13 (thoughbynomeanseasy)tostudyconcretebiologi-
While these methodologies have been more widely cal systems, such as the genome, neurochemistry,
adopted and accepted in fields such as sociology orbrainstructures,thantoexaminesubjectivetraits
andhealthsciences,theyaregainingtractionwithin suchasempathyandintelligencethatareinvisibleto
psychology itself. At present, however, such ap- the senses except through our words and actions.
proachesremainonthemargins.“Success”inmain- Thus we speak of how depressed persons are more
stream psychology still requires a commitment to likely to carry a particular allele, or to have dimin-
and competence with objectivist, quantitative ap- ished serotonin function or activity in the “reward”
proaches.14 Christians in the field would do well to areasofthebrain,losingsightof—orfranklyfinding
provide articulate grounds for methodologies that irrelevant—the subjective reasons such persons
better reflect our understanding of human nature; might give for their deep hopelessness and despair.
todevelop,teach,andpracticethosemethodologies; This “biologism” is problematic in many ways, as
and to challenge and engage the mainstream in I have addressed in more detail elsewhere.17 While
recognizing their rigor and validity. theseapproachesdohonorourembodiedcreatureli-
ness, they deny or make problematic intention, free
will,moralresponsibility,andsubjectiveexperience.
Good and Bad Reduction Theyalsoisolatehumanproblemstotheindividual,
by and large ignoring the contributions of com-
Sciencenecessarilyinvolvesaprocessofsimplifying
munity, and our collective responsibility for one
or reducing thecomplexityof reality. Exploring and
another. Solutions to psychological problems are
learning about an aspect of human experience is
limited to those that alter our biological function.
similar to creating a map. A map is not intended to
tell us everything about a territory, but only those Reducinghumannatureto“nothingbut”biologi-
things we need to navigate successfully. A map that cal mechanism (or, for that matter, social construc-
is exactly the same size as the territory and contains tion) and believing that this will reveal the “real
withiniteverysingleelementofthatterritoryisactu- truth”aboutourselvesisbothparadoxical(howcan
allyuseless.15Thusmapsare,bydefinition,simplifi- mechanisms become the mechanics?) and prideful.
cations,reductions,oftherealitytowhichtheyrefer. How can Christians engage in good reductions,
thosethatarenecessarytodoinggoodpsychological
Thistypeofreductionisnecessaryanddesirable. studies,withoutlosingsightofessentialdimensions
Reduction only becomes inappropriate when some- to human being and behavior? One place to start is
oneclaimsthatwhatisinthemapcontainsallthatis to become aware of the problems of bad reduction
essential to understanding the whole in its richness by reading some of the helpful critiques available.18
and complexity. The map should contain all that is In addition to using more traditional quantitative
essential to understanding certain aspects of reality, methods, the development and practice of research
just as Newton’s laws of planetary motion actually methods that attempt to honor human subjectivity,
do explain planetary motion. However, those laws such as those coming from “human science,” and
say nothing of the size, composition, atmosphere, feminist and existential-phenomenological perspec-
and other features of the planets. Should someone tives, are other important goals.
claim that Newton’s laws tell us everything mean-
ingful about the planets they would be engaging in
“bad” reduction.16
Context and Individualism
I submit that much of modern psychology
engages in bad reduction. It leaves out elements When psychologists speak of human nature, they
essential to understanding the rich experience of oftenmeana context-independentsetof characteris-
being human in its attempt to uncover the natural, tics that are species-specific and universal. Con-
mechanicallawsthatsupposedlygovernourbehav- structssuchasintelligence,aggression,introversion,
ior. The currently popular level to which we are self-esteem, or compassion are treated as real, stable
150 PerspectivesonScienceandChristianFaith
HeatherLooy
things that can vary quantitatively. Psychological sad, middle-aged man with few apparent external
measures are presumed to be valid indicators of stressorsandayoungchilddealingwithherparents’
these constructs; these measures are called opera- unpleasant divorce with the same diagnosis of de-
tional definitions. For example, “intelligence” might pression. It can also lead to both people receiving
beoperationalizedasa“scoreontheWechslerAdult the same treatment, usually drugs, which are them-
Intelligence Scale” or “school grades.” selves nonspecific, context-independent forms of
treatment.
Operationalizing involves decisions about which
indicators of the construct are most valid, central, Intheattempttoidentifyuniversallawsofhuman
or characteristic—decisions that are influenced by behavior, variability in that behavior literally
one’s worldview. For a long time, psychologists becomes“error,”tobecontrolledstatistically.While
were oblivious to the idea that intelligence might this is a useful procedure if the research question
look quite different in different contexts and came asks about general tendencies or probabilities, it is
to the peculiar conclusions that black people are less useful when dealing with particular people in
inherently less intelligent than white people, poor particular contexts, something that most applied
thanrich,aboriginalsthanEuropeans.Thiserrorwas psychologists, in fact, do. Rich and meaningful
caused by the indicators of intelligence—IQ scores, diversity is lost in means and standard deviations.
school grades, financial success—which were mea- Differencecanbecomeabnormality,leadingtoalien-
sures of ability to function within a particular ation, stigmatization, even unnecessary treatment
context with particular values and expectations. of the glorious variation of human experience and
Alternative, culture-sensitive measures of intelli- behavior.
gence acknowledge that what it means to be intelli-
gent in urban North America may be profoundly HowmightthetheologyoftheimageofGodhelp
different from that in the Australian outback or usdealwiththepitfallsandopportunitiesofpsycho-
Canada’s far north. However, much psychological logical research that ignores or attempts to control
research is based on operational definitions that are the effects of context? How can Christian psycholo-
developed for the North American context but pre- gists learn to become more self-critical about their
sented as if they are universally applicable. Indeed, complicityinanenterprisethatoftenmakesuniver-
many operational definitions are so context inde- sal claims about human experience and well-being
pendentthatthey are appliedacross species; for ex- withouthumbleacknowledgmentofthecomplexity
ample, studying “empathy” in rodents as a model and limitations of our self-knowledge?
for human interaction. Psychologists put a lot of
TheChristianfaithremindsusthatwearefunda-
energyintoformulating,comparing,validating,and
mentally relational beings, part of a creation that
modifying operational definitions. However, it is
includes nonhuman beings and inorganic elements,
easy to forget the disputed, contextual nature of
unabletodevelopandfunctionwithoutasocialcom-
those definitions and measures; conclusions are
munity.Alongwithafewwisevoicesemergingfrom
often written in a manner that appears to assume
mainstream psychology, Christians can and should
thatweareusingobjectivemeasuresofrealanduni-
speak to the importance of considering context and
versal human characteristics.
community in understanding a person’s experience
Ignoring context leads to other distortions of our and behavior. The concept of the body of Christ
understandingof humanexperience.19Forexample, maybehelpfulinstructuringamorecontextualand
the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental relational approach to understand human distress
Disorders is intended to standardize diagnoses and and flourishing. Further, Christians have impetus
make them more consistent across professionals from their faith to challenge clinical and counseling
and settings. It does so by using lists of context- psychologists to consider how they can play a role
independent symptoms, intensities, and durations. in promoting healthier contexts and communities
Whilethereisvaluetoastandardizedsystem,itcan rather than focusing exclusively on helping people
lead to phenomena such as labeling both a deeply cope with, or flee from, toxic environments.
Volume65,Number3,September2013 151
Article
PsychologyattheTheologicalFrontiers
Christianizing Psychology / to learn more about ourselves and specifically to
Psychology of Religion study the effects of Christianity on human experi-
enceandbehavior.Nevertheless,thetensionsinher-
Christians sometimes use mainstream psychological
ent in a field that uses assumptions about human
methods to study various “Christian” topics, such
natureandaboutknowledgethatdonotalwayshar-
as forgiveness, repentance, gratitude, altruism,20 the
monize with those of Christianity are real, and
effectivenessofprayer,21ortheimpactofreligionon
the implications have not been fully worked out.
physical and mental health.22 They also study how
mainstream psychological theories and treatment
approaches can and cannot be used effectively with
Becoming More Than Human
Christian clients.23
The study of mind and mental processes has been
While this research meets standards of rigor converging with the study of brain and neural net-
within the psychological community, by doing so works and with the study and development of
these researchers implicitly agree with the founda- computersystems.Oneofthemostwell-fundedand
tional assumptions described earlier. Does it make publicly popular areas of psychological research
sense for Christian psychologists to work within today is cognitive neuroscience, the scientific study
a positivist, mechanist, objectivist, reductive, con- of the biological aspects of mental processes. Com-
text-independentfieldinordertodemonstratescien- putersareusedinthisareanotonlyastechnological
tificallythatChristianvaluesleadtomorehappiness, supports, but also as models and metaphors for
flourishing, psychological stability, and so forth? human mental processes.
Many Christians delight in finding scientific evi-
dence to support the value and efficacy of the faith Computers can be used to model human mental
forhumanwell-being,withoutnecessarilyquestion- processes: programmed to learn, adapt, and even
ing the validity of the source of these conclusions. create in ways that are sometimes indistinguishable
from human behaviors and products. This appears
Should Christians therefore develop a parallel, to confirm the belief that the human mind is sim-
alternative form of psychology? Stand within their plya(verycomplex)biologicalmechanism,asystem
own worldview and critique mainstream psychol- that may even be reducible to computations. It fur-
ogy? Accept that mainstream psychology explores thersupportsthebeliefthatwecanuseourrational-
the same reality and therefore is one means to truth ity to discover our own mechanisms, since we can
abouthumanexperience?Worksubversivelywithin constructmachinesthatbehaveverymuchaswedo.
the mainstream, both participating and presenting The next logical step, in the eyes of some, is to use
alternatives?Thefactisthatweliveinaculturethat technology to enhance and extend human abilities.
values psychological research as a source of knowl-
edgeaboutourselves.Howdoweliveinthetension Alreadycomputertechnologyisusedtohealand
of being in but not necessarily of that world?24 If mitigatetheeffectsofdiseaseanddisability:cochlear
Godencouragesorcommandsustoliveinparticular implants for the hearing impaired, interfaces that
ways, we may presume that these are not simply enable mute or paralyzed people to communicate
arbitrarycommandsintendedsolelytotestourfaith- and interact, electrodes implanted deep in the brain
fulness, but instead to reveal what God knows will to alleviate intractable depression. Pharmaceutical
help us be most fully ourselves, best able to fulfill technologyisalsobeingusedforhealingoraltering
ourcalling.Andifso,thenitispossiblethatsystem- mentalstates.Christiansoftenfeelcomfortablewith
atic examination of those who attempt to live in suchusesoftechnology;healingisanimportantcall-
God’s way might reveal positive outcomes of doing ing. But the line between healing and enhancement
so. Further, on the presumption that “all truth is is a blurry one. Should we use drugs or computer
God’s truth,” it may be that knowledge obtained technologytoboosthumanmemorybeyonditscrea-
throughpsychologicalscienceisnolessandnomore turelylimits?Toenablesomeonetoseeclearlyinthe
truthful than knowledge obtained through other dark? To give firefighters more strength, CEOs and
means, such as a faith tradition. Thus there is some universitystudentsmoreenergy,orreducetheneed
warrant for Christians to use psychological science for sleep?25
152 PerspectivesonScienceandChristianFaith