Persian Antiques Splendor ( Mining Crafts and Archeology in Ancient Iran )

549 Pages·2004·60.56 MB·English

by  T . Stollner

Persian Antiques Splendor
mining crafts and archaeology in ancient Iran

Editors:
T. Stollner, R. Slotta, and A. Vatandoust

Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum, Bochum

2004
Contents
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)
(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)
Iran - General Part
(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)
01 Abdolrasool Vatandoust 2
Old Mining and Metallurgy in Iran – Past and Future of a Research Perspective.
02 Morteza Momenzadeh 8
Metallic mineral resources of Iran, mined in ancient times. A brief review (contributed by: Ali Hajisoltan & Mahsa Momenzadeh)
03 Sadegh Malek Shahmirzadi 22
A Short History of Archaeological Research in Iran.
04 Vincent Pigott 28
On the Importance of Iran in the Study of Prehistoric Copper-base Metallurgy.
05 Thomas Stöllner 44
Prehistoric and Ancient Ore-Mining in Iran.
06 Gerd Weisgerber 64
Decorative Stones in the Ancient Orient (Lapis lazuli, turquoise, agate, carneole).
07 Ali Abbas Alizadeh 76
Mobile Pastoralism and Prehistoric Exchange.
08 Rainer Slotta 92
Iran and Germany – Scientific, Economic, and Political Contacts and Relations in the Course of the Centuries.
Prehistoric periods
(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)
09 Saman Heydari 124
Stone Raw Material Sources in Iran: Some Case Studies.
10 Fereidoun Biglari 130
The Preliminary Observations on Middle Palaeolithic Raw Material Procurement and
Usage in the Kermanshah Plain, the Case of Do-Ashkaft Cave.
11 Reinhard Bernbeck 140
Iran in the Neolithic.
12 Kamyar Abdi 148
Obsidian in Iran from the Epipalaeolithic Period to the Bronze Age.
13 Barbara Helwing 154
Early Towns and Cities in Iran.
14 Ali Abbas Alizadeh 166
Chogha Mish.
15 Agnés Benoit 178
Susa
16 Hassan Fazeli 194
Chalcolithic Archaeology of the Qazvin Plain.
17 Sadegh Malek Shahmirzadi 200
Sialk and its Culture at a Glance.
18 Nasr Chegini, Barbara Helwing, Hermann Parzinger & Abdolrasool Vatandoust 210
A Prehistoric Industrial Settlement on the Iranian Plateau – Research at Arisman.
19 Nikolas Boroffka & Jörg Becker 218
Pottery Kilns in Arisman.
20 Kourosh Roustaei 222
Tappeh Hesa¯r: A Major Manufacturing Centre at the Central Plateau.
21 Ernst Pernicka 232
Copper and Silver in Arisman and Tappeh Sialk and the Early Metallurgy in Iran.
22 Thomas Stöllner, Monika Doll, Mahmood Mir Eskanderi, Morteza Momenzadeh, Rainer Pasternak & Gero Steffens 240
Bronze Age Copper Mining at Veshnaveh.
23 Kamyar Abdi 258
Craft Activities in Banesh Period Kur River Basin.
24 Chris P. Thornton & Carl C. Lamberg-Karlovsky 264
Tappeh Yahya and the Prehistoric Metallurgy of Southeastern Iran.
25 Benoît Mille, Roland Besenval & David Bourgarit 274
Early ‘lost-wax casting’ in Baluchistan (Pakistan): the “Leopards Weight” from Shahi-Tump.
26 Philip Kohl 282
Chlorite and Other Stone Vessels and their Exchange on the Iranian Plateau and Beyond.
27 Agnes Benoit 290
A Cylindrical Double-Vase with Basketwork- and House-Decoration.
Protohistoric Periods
(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)
28 Behzad Mofidi Nasrabadi 294
Elam: Archaeology and History.
29 Christian Konrad Piller 310
The Iranian Highlands in the 2nd and 3rd Millennium BC: the Period of Early History.
30 Bruno Overlaet 328
Luristan metalwork in the Iron Age.
31 Souri Ayazi 340
Luristan Disc-headed Bronze Pins.
32 Vincent C. Pigott 350
Hasanlu and the Emergence of Iron in Early 1st Millennium BC Western Iran.
33 R. H. Dyson Jr. 358
Memories of Hasanlu 1958 – the discovery of the golden beaker.
34 Stephan Kroll 360
Bastam and Iron Age in Northwestern Iran.
Historical Periods
(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)
35 Heidemarie Koch 372
Medes and Persians.
36 Shahrokh Razmjou 382
Glazed Bricks in the Achaemenid Period
(With contributions by Mike S. Tite & A. J. Shortland and Marion Jung & Andreas Hauptmann).
37 Dietrich Huff 394
Pre-Islamic Quarry- and Stone-Technology in Iran.
38 Josef Wiesehöfer 408
Communicators between East and West: The Parthians.
39 Dietrich Huff 416
Iran in Sasanian and Medieval-Islamic Periods.
40 Elaheh Askari & Mehdi Daryaei 440
Coinage of the Preislamic and Islamic Period.
41 Bruno Overlaet 450
A Late Sasanian helmet and a sella castrensis from NW-Iran.
42 Fereshte R–ahimi 456
Technical Examination and Provenance Studies on Sasanian Silver Vessels from Quri Qaleh
43 Dietrich Huff 462
Takht-i Suleiman. Sasanian Fire Sanctuary and Mongolian Palace.
44 Dietrich Huff 472
Gold- and Metal Working on Takht-i Suleiman in the Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.
45 Thomas Stöllner, Gerd Weisgerber, Morteza Momenzadeh & Ernst Pernicka 478
The Significance of the Lead-/Silver Pits at Nakhlak in Antiquity.
46 Gerd Weisgerber 494
Ancient Mining in the Hindukush According to Ancient and Medieval Sources.
47 Gerd Weisgerber 502
The Turquoise Mines at Nishapur.
48 Ernst Pernicka 510
Medieval Islamic Pottery and a “Cookbook” from K–ash–an
(including an essay on the cobalt mine at Qamsar by Thomas Stöllner).
49 Andreas Schachner 518
Salt Deposits and Their Exploitation in Historic Iran.
50 Holger Kulke 526
Salt in Afghanistan: Significance, Geology, and Traditional Rocksalt-Mining.
51 Gerd Weisgerber 532
Mining for Water - Kaeris and Qanat. Iran’s Most Important Traditional Method of Water Production.
52 Ulrike Rothenhäusler 544
The Blue-Glazed Donkey-Beads from Qom, Iran – Observations Concerning an Almost Forgotten Crafts-Technique.
53 Roya Arab & Thilo Rehren 550
The Pyrotechnological Expedition of 1968.
54 Radomir Pleiner 556
Memories of the Archaeometallurgic Expeditions to Iran and Afghanistan in the Years 1966 and 1968.
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)
(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)
Old Mining and Metallurgy in Iran –
Past and Future of a Research Perspective
Abdolrasool Vatandoust
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:1)(cid:2)
(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:3)(cid:4)
Introduction excavations in various parts of the country, numerous metal arte-
facts have been discovered. Hundreds of archaeological sites, old
(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1) copper mines and deposits related to the beginning of the metal-
lurgy still need to be investigated. Although the requirement for a
The rich and ancient history of the Iranian Plateau and the im- comprehensive and systematic investigation in the field of archae-
mense wealth of metallurgical remains distributed in various forms ometallurgy in Iran had always been greatly felt but until the imple-
in different parts of the country have been a source of attracting mentation of so called “Arisman Project” there had been only some
archaeometallurgists and scholars for many years. Systematic useful efforts in the past in trying to reveal some of the most urgent
archaeological excavations as well as illicit diggings of ancient
remains in Iran in the last few decades have resulted in unearthing
and continually revealing of a vast number of prehistoric metal
artefacts and other related materials. Through the growing interest (cid:1)(cid:2)
FFiigg.. 11:: TThhee ssiittee ooff AArriissmmaann ((PPrroovv.. IIssffaahhaann)) wwiitthh iittss eennoorrmmoouuss
in the field of archaeology in Iran by the Iranian and foreign
(cid:3)(cid:4) ssllaagg hheeaappss bbeeffoorree aarrcchhaaeeoollooggiiccaall aanndd aarrcchhaaeeoommeettaalllluurrggiiccaall
scholars in the last three decades, a number of prehistoric sites
rreesseeaarrcchh hhaass bbeeeenn ssttaarrtteedd;; PPhhoottoo:: RR.. VVaattaannddoouusstt..
have been uncovered during the second half of the 20th century,
many of them yielding valuable information concerning ancient
metal working in the Iranian plateau during several millennia BC.
Metal objects and moulds, slags, crucibles and various other neces-
sary tools and materials belonging to the prehistoric metal workers
have been recovered from a range of excavations carried out in dif-
ferent geographical regions: Sialk in Ka¯sha¯n (Central Iran), Ali Kosh
in Khuzestan (SW of Iran), Khabis (Shahdad) in Dasht-e Lut (SE of
Iran), Tappeh Yahya in Kerman (Southern Iran), Hasanlu (NW of
Iran), Tal-i Iblis (Southern Iran), Arrajan (SW of Iran) as well as
Susa (SW of Iran) and Luristan province in the west of the coun-
try. These and many other archaeological sites in different geo-
graphical locations in Iran have produced information and materials
to be studied in relation to different aspects of ancient Iranian
metallurgy. Copper and copper alloy objects belonging to different
millennia of prehistoric period, from the seventh millennium BC
(Hole et al.1969) down to the first millennium BC (Towhidi & Kha-
lilian 1983), uncovered from these sites, are evidences for the
earlier metallurgy in Iran. From the time of the discovery of pieces
of corroded copper pieces from Tappeh Ali Kosh dated to the 7th
millennium BC in Khuzestan province to current archaeological
2
OLDMININGANDMETALLURGYINIRAN– PASTANDFUTUREOFARESEARCHPERSPECTIVE
questions (Fig. 1). To this end a number of metal artefacts be- Iran, belonging to period V (4000-3800 BC) of the site, revealed a
longing to private or museum collections have been catalogued and proportion of arsenic of up to 3.7% in copper, and the conclusion
analysed. There have been pioneers in undertaking research in this was drawn for the technique of casting and shaping the object by
field: Excavations at Tappeh Hesa¯r (Schmidt 1937) showed the hot and cold working (Lamberg-Karlowsky & Potts 2001; Thorn-
existence of copper working in North-Eastern Iran. Metallurgical ton 2001). Further studies including analyses of artefact material
analyses of some Luristan bronzes published by Desch (1938) are and examination of technological evolution of metal smelting at
among early scientific works on Iranian prehistoric metal objects. Hesa¯r (Pigott et al. 1982) noted the change in ore source and the
The analyses of a piece of metal found at “M” period of Geoy Tap- possibility of reuse of industrial wastes or by-products in bronze-
peh (3rd mill. BC) proved that the object was of pure copper and technology. Several seasons of excavations in Shahdad yielded dis-
suggested that at the beginning of the third millennium BC copper tinctive features of very early metallurgy in Kerman province. Furt-
was used almost pure in that region, but during the first half and her excavations in various archaeological sites in Iran, such as
middle of the third millennium BC, the presence of arsenic in cop- Arrajan (Towhidi & Khalilian 1982; Vatandoust-Haghighi 1988) in
per began to become evident (Burton-Brown 1951). The analytical Khuzestan, Bookab in Azarbaidjan, Pishva in Varamin (near Teh-
results for some eighteen Iranian bronzes in the collection of ran) have produced very interesting metal objects.
Nicholson Museum, University of Sydney (Birmingham 1963)
showed a proportion of lead varying in amounts from 0.01 to 5%,
which was indeed very interesting in those days, as it was a first
hint for deliberate alloys with lead. Examinations of Iranian Mineralogical background
bronzes in the collection of the Institute of Archaeology, Universi-
ty of London, mentioned the importance of the “casting on” tech- (cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)
nique applied to some daggers from Northern Iran. This subject
was again studied in joining of a mounting of the blade to the hilt Iran is also rich in mineral deposits, including copper. The abun-
of some daggers from North-West Iran (Maxwell-Hyslop 1962; dance of copper in different parts of Iran could well be one of the
Maxwell-Hyslop & Hodges 1964). The metallurgical examinations main causes for the extensive copper metallurgy in ancient times.
of a Luristan dagger by Birmingham, Kennan & Malin (1964) reve- In fact the coincidence of the locations of copper deposits with the
aled a series of scientific indications regarding the methods of fabri- prehistoric sites in the country appears to demonstrate the early
cation applied by ancient metal workers. recognition and utilisation of these sources.
Hasanlu is another prehistoric site in Iran where a number of inter- The major copper occurrences discovered are located in Kerman in
esting metal objects of bronze and iron have been discovered (Mus- Southern Iran, Anarak in Central Iran near the town of Ka¯sha¯n,
carella 1966; 1988; De Schauensee 1988). Other attempts have Abbasabad (NE of Iran), northern Azarbaidjan, and Tarom (SW of
also been made concerning the metallic culture in Iran, paying the Caspian Sea). There are many ancient copper deposits believed
attention to the coloured flame reaction used by the ancient foun- to have been utilised by the prehistoric metal workers. Qaleh Zari
ders for ascertaining the temperature of the melt (Tsurumatsu (southern Khorasan) and Veshna¯veh (between Qom and Ka¯sha¯n),
1967). The results of scientific works on Hasanlu’s metal objects only 45 km from Tappeh Sialk, a site which has revealed many
have clearly shown the bronze working as well as the emergence copper and bronze artefacts, are just two important deposits to be
of iron used at this site in prehistoric Iran (Vatandoust-Haghighi mentioned here.
1977; Pigott 1989). As a result of an archaeological and metallur-
gical project undertaken by a group of scientists in Bardsir valley The copper deposits in the vicinity of Kerman are abundant. The
in Kerman province, in the south-west of Iran, evidence for very discovery of metalworking activity in prehistoric sites such as Tap-
early metallurgy was discovered (end of 5th mill. BC; Caldwell peh Yahya, Tal-i Iblis and Shahdad, all located in Kerman province,
1967; 1968). This investigation was followed by an international and the frequency of copper occurrences in this region can be taken
reconnaissance expedition made in 1968 by a team (Tylecote as an indication that the Kerman district could well have been one
1970), travelling from Kabul (Afghanistan) across Iran to Ankara of the major metalworking centres of the old world. The evidence
(Turkey) examining 40 sites of early metal working. Although most of copper smelting in Tal-i Iblis, dated to the end of the 5th mill.
of the surveyed sites belonged to the Islamic period or later it was BC, and also the discovery of the “city of Artisans” in Shahdad
concluded that many of them could have been worked earlier, espe- (Hakemi 1992; 1997) belonging to the later part of the fourth mil-
cially those containing native copper. The important review of all lennium BC, well support the idea of placing Kerman as the oldest
the aspects of the development of metallurgy in Iran including an area, in which copper ores were smelted in Western Asia.
extensive and very useful bibliography by P. R. S. Moorey following
his preliminary study of the historical development of metalworking Among various copper mines in this region, traces of old working
in western Iran with special reference to Luristan (Moorey 1971; on some of the deposits have been observed. The presence of cop-
1982), categorising the concept of the investigation of ancient per carbonate and some native copper in Chah-e Messi (copper
metallurgy to mines and mining, smelting, workshops, attempts to well) is reported (Bazin & Hübner 1969). Although geologists
draw a clear map, retrospecting and prospecting the investigation believe that most of the current active copper mines have also been
of ancient metallurgy in Iran. A point to consider is that, in view used by ancient metal workers, it should be said that old copper
of the subject’s immaturity, his conclusions are not appropriate. mines in Iran do need more thorough and detailed investigations
The analyses of six artefacts from Tappeh Yahya in the south of and research by archaeologists, geologists and archaeometallur-
3
OLDMININGANDMETALLURGYINIRAN– PASTANDFUTUREOFARESEARCHPERSPECTIVE
(cid:1)(cid:2)
FFiigg.. 22:: PPaarrttiicciippaannttss ooff tthhee 22nnddsseemmiinnaarr oonn ““OOlldd mmiinniinngg aanndd MMeettaalllluurrggyy aatt tthhee IIrraanniiaann ppllaatteeaauu””,, hheelldd iinn DDeecceemmbbeerr 22000011 iinn TTeehhrraann;; PPhhoottoo:: RRCCCCCCRR..
(cid:3)(cid:4)
gists. Recent works (Abbass-Nejad 1994) in Kerman province have Geological Survey of Iran (GSI) and the Department of Mineralogi-
shown that Zangalou mine situated close to the Rafsanjan-Sar- cal Studies of the University of Mainz was reached, followed short-
cheshmeh road and approximately 3 km from Sar Cheshmeh may ly after by a joint teamwork between these partners and the Irani-
have been utilised by ancient metalworkers. There is a hole of 2 m an Cultural Heritage Organization (ICHO). This resulted in a first
depth in Zangalou, which is believed to have been used for mining. international meeting in Iran and the establishment of the Com-
The bushes growing around this old mine are locally called Kollah- mittee for Studies of Old Mining and Metallurgy at the Research
e Qazi and it is said that if fired it burns for two hours producing Centre for Conservation of Cultural Relics (RCCCR) at the ICHO. In
a very high temperature. Sheikh Ali deposit located in 25 km SW 1997 the Committee organised an International Symposium on
of Tappeh Yahya and Zaqdar mine again not far from Tappeh Archaeometallurgy in Central and Western Asia: as a result the
Yahya have been indeed used in old times. The ancient mine of Committee was joined by other German institutions such as the
Sheikh Ali has been investigated by a team of archaeologists and German Archaeological Institute (DAI), the TU Bergakademie Frei-
geologists (Berthoud et al. 1976). A first usage could date back to berg (TUBAF) and the German Mining Museum Bochum (DBM).
the end of the 4th through the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. This conference as well as a Compact Course on Old Mining and
Metallurgy held two years later in Ka¯sha¯n established a friendly
and scientifically supportive atmosphere within the partners and
consolidated the idea of a joint and international project between
The Project on mining and Iranian and German partners.
metallurgy Starting point became the recently discovered settlement of Aris-
man, which was presented to the ICHO by Mr. Davoud Hasanali-
an, a local geologist, in 1996. Arisman’s importance in early
(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1) metallurgy initially became apparent by first Radiocarbon dating
Although some interesting studies have been carried out, further results, dating the site back to the 4th and 3rd millennium BC, as
systematic and comprehensive investigations have always been felt well as its abundant metallurgical remains on a vast settlement
to be most necessary. To understand Iran’s role in developing early area. These initial outcomes and further various visits and excur-
metallurgy and technology an appropriate interdisciplinary project sions by members of the Committee during various meetings gave
had to be settled and started. This certainly needed several years reason to decide for the envisaged comprehensive project and to
of preparation. First in 1991, an initial collaboration between the start it in Arisman itself (Fig. 2). Later and based on the progress
4
OLDMININGANDMETALLURGYINIRAN– PASTANDFUTUREOFARESEARCHPERSPECTIVE
and development of initial programme the investigations were to be
extended to other potential sites and areas as well. From the very
beginning the Project, currently being extended to a much larger
region and identified as Studies on Old Mining and Metallurgy in
Central Iranian Plateau, were to comprise of five distinct research
disciplines: archaeology, geology and mineralogy, mining archaeo-
logy, metallurgy and archaeometry and conservation and restora-
tion. During 2000 and 2002 seasons a joint Iranian and German
team was able to carry out a series of field campaigns (Fig. 3): the
excavations in Arisman soon were followed by surveys and
soundings in the mining district in Veshna¯veh.
These archaeological investigations were accompanied from the
beginning by geological and mineralogical surveys in the hinterland
of Arisman, later also in other mountainous regions stretching bet-
ween Veshna¯veh and Natanz (Chegini et al. 2001) (Fig. 4). An
archaeometallurgical survey was also included later on, focused
mainly on the region of Anarak and Nakhlak: due to their abun-
dant metal resources especially of native copper, scholars have (cid:1)(cid:2)
FFiigg.. 33:: AArriissmmaann –– wwoorrkk oonn ssiittee:: ccoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn ooff ppootttteerryy kkiillnnss bbyy
regarded the region as the most important for the earliest steps of
(cid:3)(cid:4) ccoolllleeaagguueess ooff tthhee RRCCCCCCRR iinn 22000000;; PPhhoottoo:: RR.. VVaattaannddoouusstt..
metallurgy – but an exact proof has not been reached so far.
Beside the field work several investigations were undertaken in Ira- Geochemical analyses of ores, slags and metals have given us
nian and German laboratories: geochemical analyses of ores and (cid:1) the possibility of drawing two remarkable conclusions: first of all
metals should help to understand the work-flow from the ores to the copper seems not to originate from one main source but more
end-product. Radiocarbon-dating gave a first secure chronology from several, perhaps small scaled regional deposits. Despite
especially for the mining site of Veshna¯veh and different layers in that there is strong evidence for some ore delivery from Nakh-
Arisman. Archaeozoological and Archaeobotanical studies carried lak-Baqoroq region. Lead-Isotope investigations do suggest the
out at several German Institutions revealed a series of insights into provenance of those silver-bearing lead ores worked in Arisman,
the economy and subsistence of the early metal-producing societies originating from Nakhlak. Some geochemical hints also indicate
at the western part of the Central Plateau. Although there are still a a copper deposit like Baqoroq situated nearby Nakhlak as one
lot more detailed investigations to be carried out the first research possible source for Arisman.
period have brought many important results to light such as:
Investigations in Veshna¯veh proved copper-mining during the
The settlement of Arisman can be regarded as specialised site (cid:1) early 3rdmillennium in a first phase as surface and small scaled
(cid:1) for producing copper and silver metals at least over time period underground work. According to radiocarbon-dating a second
of more than half a millennium (from the 1st half of the 4th mining period can be assumed for the beginning of the second
millennium to the beginning of the third millennium). Similar to millennium BC, now related with extensive underground
other sites at the Iranian plateau there is the evidence for pri- workings. This periodisation suggests the influx of Veshna¯veh
mary copper smelting on site and the production of finished pro- copper to regional markets during the 3rd millennium at a small
ducts such as heavy shaft-hole axes and flat axes. Most im- scale, but more extended during the beginning of the 2nd
portant is the evidence for silver production by cupellation of millennium – a period when archaeology has noted again small
silver-bearing lead ores. It can be likewise presumed that fine sil- scaled permanent settlement activities at the Central plateau.
ver products like prestigious pendants have been produced on Techniques and logistics of mining suggest a seasonal mode of
site. First results concerning wood management suggest that exploitation perhaps by nomadic groups who were responsible
Arisman was based in a semi-arid zone that was able to deliver either for exploitation as well as for transport of concentrated
sufficient wood-stock for smelting and living there. ores to metal-working settlements at the plateau. As an impor-
tant by-product of the Veshna¯veh research, the excavators
Field surveys in the hinterland of Arisman brought the evidence discovered a Parthian/Sasanian offering area in one of the mines
(cid:1) that the land-stripe around Karkas-mountains and the flat zones (Stöllner & Mireskanderi 2003) – this site not only provides
east of Arisman and Badrod have been chosen in several periods insight in religious practices during the 1st mill. AD, but also
for crafts activities from the late 5th millennium on, especially in documents the changes in the human usage of the mountainous
late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age as well as during the Iron landscapes during these periods. On the basis of archaeobotan-
Age and historical periods. Main reason may be sought in com- ical and archaeozoological data a clear differentiation between
parably favoured conditions for trade and access to natural these periods now is possible. Evaluating these data provides a
resources. But still there is no evidence for a local copper source more accurate insight into Bronze Age land use as the ecologi-
on which the settlement of Arisman especially was based. cal data widely differ from those of the later Iron Age.
5
OLDMININGANDMETALLURGYINIRAN– PASTANDFUTUREOFARESEARCHPERSPECTIVE
(cid:1)(cid:2)
FFiigg.. 44:: TThhee oouuttccrrooppss ooff tthhee nnaattiivvee ccooppppeerr ddeeppoossiittss ooff DDaarrhhaanndd nneeaarr NNaattaannzz ((PPrroovv.. IIssffaahhaann)),, vviieeww ttoo nnoorrtthheeaasstt;; PPhhoottoo:: BB.. HHeellwwiinngg..
(cid:3)(cid:4)
The future
research team fully devoted to these common aims. So it is
(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1) envisaged that these fruitful collaborations will be continued during
the coming years in a smooth and attractive scientific atmosphere.
These first results have made apparent the wide-scaled economic
attitudes of the prehistoric people at the Central Plateau – trading To get this exhibition organised it is also a great chance for the pro-
ores over hundreds of kilometres seems nowadays more likely as ject itself, especially to present results and research programs to a
twenty years before. In general the project has started to develop broader scientific and public audience. A major project like the one
from single local sites to a regional scope – therefore it has been introduced here has besides its scientific scope also an educational
renamed into “Early Mining and Metallurgy on the Central Iranian and political task: young scholars shall be attracted to join this pro-
Plateau“ – the working area now spans from the Qazvin Plain in gram and devote their practical and theoretical studies to the inter-
the Northwest to the Anarak area in the Southeast and from the disciplinary frame of this project. The needs for more acceptances
southern foothills of the Alborz in the Northeast to the Plain of of cultural heritage and particularly for the values of economic and
Isfaha¯n in the Southwest. The chronological framework extends industrial history are strongly felt worldwide and Iran is no excep-
from the Neolithic period to the 1st millennium BC. The need for tion. Iranian people, appreciating their long-lasting history and
reorganising the project also was reasoned in the increasing com- facing the realities of the current world, begin more enthusiastical-
plexity of scientific questions and results: the distinctive metal eco- ly to understand the worth of archaeology as an important scien-
nomy recently becomes understood as part of a complex resource tific and social task. An exhibition like the one organised by the
management necessarily based on the special regional character of Deutsches Bergbau-Museum and Iranian Cultural Heritage and
the Central plateau. Naturally such complex research aims only can Tourism Organization may help to stimulate and fill us with
be answered by a long lasting and intensive research work and a enthusiasm for our future work.
6
OLDMININGANDMETALLURGYINIRAN– PASTANDFUTUREOFARESEARCHPERSPECTIVE
Bibliography MAXWELL-HYSLOP, K. R.:
1962 Bronze from Iran in the collection of the Institute of Archae-
(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1)(cid:1) ology, University of London (with technical report on the
bronzes by H. W. Hodges). Iraq 24, 126-133.
ABBASS-NEJAD, R.: MAXWELL-HYSLOP, K. R. & HODGES, H. W. M.:
1994 Aspects of the art and craft of metalworking from the begin- 1964 A note on the significance of the techniques of `casting on´
ning to the end of the third millennium B.C. in the archae- as applied to a group of daggers from North-west Persia.
ological sites of south-east of Iran. Unpublished M.A. the- Iraq 26, 50-53.
sis in Archaeology, Faculty of Human Sciences, University MOOREY, P. R. S.:
of Tarbiat-e Modarress, Tehran. 1971 A Catalogue of Persian Bronzes in the Ashmolean Museum,
BAZIN, D. & HÜBNER, H.: Oxford.
1969 Copper Deposits in Iran. Geological Survey of Iran, Report 1982 Archaeology and Pre-Achaemenid Metalworking in Iran: A
No. 13, Tehran. Fifteen Year Retrospective. Iran 20, 81-98.
BERTHOUD, T., BESENVAL, R., CLEUZIOU, S., FRANCAIX, J. & LISZAK- MUSCARELLA, O. W.:
HOURS, J.: 1966 Hasanlu 1964, Philadelphia.
1976 Les anciennes mines de Cuivre en Iran. Recherche coopéra- 1988 Bronze and Iron. Ancient Near Eastern Artifacts in the
tive sur programme 442, Paris. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
BIRMINGHAM, J. B.: PIGOTT, V. C.:
1963 Iranian bronzes in the Nicholson Museum, University of 1989 Archaeo-metallurgical Investigations at Bronze Age Tappeh
Sydney, part I. Iran 1, 71-82. Hesar 1976. In: R. H. Dyson, Jr. & S. M. Howard (eds.),
BIRMINGHAM, J., KENNAN, N. F. & MALIN, A. S.: Tappeh Hesar, Reports of the Restudy Project, 1976, Flo-
1964 A „Luristan” dagger: an examination of ancient metallurgi- rence, 25-33.
cal techniques. Iraq 26, 44-49. PIGOTT, V. C., HOWARD, S. M. & EPSTEIN, S. M.:
BURTON-BROWN, T. B.: 1982 Pyrotechnology and Culture Change at Bronze Age Tepe
1951 Excavations in Azarbaijan, 1948, London. Hissar (Iran). In: T. A. Wertime & S. A. Wertime (eds.),
CALDWELL, J. R.: Early Pyrotechnology. The Evolution of the First Fire-Using
1967 Investigations at Tal-i-Iblis. Illinois State Museum, Prelimi- Industries, Washington, D.C., 215-236.
nary Reports 9, Springfield, Illinois. SCHMIDT, E. F.:
1968 Tal-i Iblis and the Beginning of the Copper Metallurgy in the 1937 Excavations at Tepe Hissar, Iran, Philadelphia.
Fifth Millennium. Archaeologia Viva 1, 145-150. STÖLLNER, TH. & MIRESKANDERI, M.:
- -
CHEGINI, N. N., MOMENZADEH, M., PARZINGER, H., PERNICKA, E., 2003 Die Höhle der Anahita. Ein sassanidischer Opferplatz im
-
STÖLLNER, T., VATANDOUST, A. & WEISGERBER, G.: bronzezeitlichen Bergbaurevier von Veshnaveh, Iran. Antike
2001 Preliminary report on the archaeometallurgical investiga- Welt 32, 505-516.
tions around the prehistoric site of Arisman near Kashan, THORNTON, CHR.:
western Central Iran. Arch. Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan 2001 A Reassessment of the Metallurgical Sequence of the Iran-
32, 2000, 281-318. ian Plateau from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age through
DESCH, C. H.: Chemical and Metallographic Analyses of a „Trinket”
1938 The bronzes of Luristan; B: metallurgical analyses. In: A. Technology. B.A. thesis, Harvard University.
Upham-Pope (ed.), A Surve of Persian Art from Prehistoric TOWHIDI, F. & KHALILIAN, M.:
Times to the Present, London, 1, 278. 1983 Report on the survey of objects discovered in the tomb of
DE SCHAUENSEE, M.: Arrajan (Behbaban). Athar Magazine 7, 8-9.
1988 Northwest Iran as a Bronzeworking Centre: The View of TSURUMATSU, D.:
Hasanlu. In: J. Curtis (ed.), Bronze-working Centres of 1967 The chemical investigation of ancient metallic culture. Asa-
Western Asia c. 1000-539 B.C., London/New York, 45-62. kura shoten, Tokyo.
HAKEMI, A.: TYLECOTE, R. F.:
1992 The copper smelting furnaces of the Bronze Age at Shah- 1970 Early Metallurgy in the Near East. Metals and Materials 4,
dad. In: C. Jarrige (ed.), South Asian Archaeology 1989. 285-293.
Monographs in World Archaeology 14, 119-132. VATANDOUST-HAGHIGHI, A.:
1997 Shahdad. Archaeological Excavations of a Bronze Age Cen- 1977 Aspects of Prehistoric Iranian and Copper and Bronze Tech-
ter in Iran. ISMEO, Centro Scavi e recherche archeologiche. nology. Ph.D. Thesis, Institute of Archaeology, University
Reports and Memoirs 27, Rom. College London.
HOLE, F., FLANNERY, K. V. & NEELY, J. A. (EDS.): 1988 Conservation, restoration and technical investigations of
1969 Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Deh Luran Plain: An some of Arrajan metal objects. Athar Magazine 15 & 16.
Early Village Sequence from Khuzistan, Iran, Ann Arbor, 1999 A view on prehistoric Iranian metalworking: Elemental ana-
University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology. lyses and metallographic examinations. In: A. Hauptmann,
LAMBERG-KARLOVSKY, C. C. & POTTS, D. T.: E. Pernicka, Th. Rehren & Ü. Yalçin (eds.), The Beginnings
2001 Excavations at Tappeh Yahya, Iran 1967-1975. American of Metallurgy. Proc. Internat. Conf. Bochum 1995. Der
School of Prehistoric Research, Bulletin 45, Cambridge, Mass. Anschnitt, Beiheft 9, Bochum, 121-140.
7