patterns of weaning among ancestral huron-wendat communities, determined from nitrogen isotopes

18 Pages·2017·0.74 MB·English

PATTERNSOFWEANINGAMONGANCESTRALHURON-WENDAT
COMMUNITIES,DETERMINEDFROMNITROGENISOTOPES
SusanPfeiffer,JudithC.Sealy,RonaldF.Williamson,CrystalForrest,andLouisLesage
ArchaeologicalevidenceoftheancestralHuron-WendatNationofSouthernOntario,Canada,showsapopulationincrease
from the thirteenth through sixteenth centuries, suggesting high fertility. Birth timing and infant survival are influenced
bymothers’decisionsaboutweaning.Thisstudyexplorestrophicenrichmentofδ15Ninhorizontaldentineslicesfrom35
deciduousmolars(n=33dm1,n=2dm2)and39permanentfirstmolars(M1)representingfiveHuron-Wendatossuaries,
datingfromthefourteenththroughseventeenthcenturies.Weaningwasnormallyincompleteattheendofdmformation,atan
ageofabout2.5years.Post-weaningdentinevaluesappearbytheendofcrownformationofM1.Theweaningprocessbegan
between8and18monthsandwascompleteinallcasesby3.5years.Timingoftheweaningprocessdoesnotsupportthe
ideathatHuron-Wendatpopulationincreasewasassociatedwithearlyweaningofinfants.Communitiesfromthesixteenth
centuryandthereaftershowearliercompletionofweaning.Reasonsforearliercessationofbreastfeedingmaybefoundin
thesocialandbiologicaldisruptionsoftheeraofEuropeancontact.Valuesfrompermanentteethofmandibleswithsex
attributedsuggestamorehomogeneous,possiblyvenison-oriented,post-weaningdietamongmales.
LesévidencesarchéologiquesdesancêtresdelaNationhuronne-wendatdanslesuddel’Ontario,Canada,présententune
augmentationdepopulationentrelestreizièmeetseizièmesiècles,suggérantainsiunhautdegrédefertilité.Lemomentde
lanaissanceetlasurvieinfantilesontinfluencésladatedesevrage,laquelleestdécidéeparlamère.Cetteétudeexplore
l’enrichissementtrophiquedeδ15Ndansdestrancheshorizontalesdedentinede35molaires(N=33dm1,N=2dm2)etde39
prémolairespermanentes(M1)provenantdecinqossuaireshurons-wendatidentifiésentrelequatorzièmeetledix-septième
siècle.Lesevrageétaitnormalementincompletàlafindelaformationdedm,soitàunâged’environ2,5ans.Lesvaleursde
dentinepost-sevrageapparaissaientverslafindelaformationdelacouronnedeM1.Leprocessusdesevragecommençait
entrehuitet18moisetétaitcompletdanstouslescasà3,5ans.Ledébutduprocessusdesevragenesupportepasl’idée
quel’augmentationdelapopulationhuronne-wendatétaitassociéeàunsevrageprécocedesenfants.Lescommunautésdu
seizièmesiècleetceuxsuivants,présententunsevragecomplétéàunâgeplusjeune.Lesraisonsexpliquantl’arrêtd’un
nourrissageparleseinplushâtifpeuventêtreexpliquéesparlesperturbationssocialesetbiologiquesdel’époqueducontact
avecleseuropéens.Lesvaleursdesdentspermanentesprovenantdemandibulessontlesexeestconnusuggèrentunediète
post-sevrageplushomogènechezleshommes,probablementinfluencéeparlavenaison.
T
he term “weaning” describes the transi- within this transition can affect the health of
tion from the first introduction of foods both the child and the mother. Duration of
supplementarytobreastmilktotheestab- breastfeeding varies within and among human
lishment of a diet that does not include breast populations from about four months to about
milk (Sellen 2009). The timing of each stage six years (Sellen 2001). Decisions about when
SusanPfeiffer DepartmentofAnthropology,UniversityofToronto,19RussellStreet,Toronto,CanadaM5S2S2
([email protected],correspondingauthor)
JudithC.Sealy DepartmentofArchaeology,UniversityofCapeTown,PrivateBagX3,Rondebosch,SouthAfrica7701
([email protected])
RonaldF.Williamson ArchaeologicalServicesInc.,528BathurstStreet,Toronto,Canada,M5S2P9
([email protected])
CrystalForrest ArchaeologyProgramsUnit,MinistryofTourism,CultureandSport,401BayStreet,Suite1700,
Toronto,CanadaM5J2Z3([email protected])
LouisLesage NationHuronne-Wendat,BureauduNionwentsïo,255PlaceMichel-Laveau,Wendake,Canada,G0A4V0
([email protected])
AmericanAntiquity82(2),2017,pp.244–261
Copyright©2017bytheSocietyforAmericanArchaeology.ThisisanOpenAccessarticle,distributedunderthetermsof
theCreativeCommonsAttributionlicence(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/),whichpermitsunrestrictedre-use,
distribution,andreproductioninanymedium,providedtheoriginalworkisproperlycited.
doi:10.1017/aaq.2016.36
244
https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2016.36 Published online by Cambridge University Press
Pfeifferetal.] PATTERNSOFWEANINGAMONGANCESTRALHURON-WENDATCOMMUNITIES 245
and how to cease breastfeeding are linked to information about mothers’ decisions is often
socialpracticesandlocalfoodresources.These difficulttodocument.
decisions, in turn, can influence birth spacing, ThisisthecasefortheHuron-Wendatofthe
and are therefore linked to fertility. While the LowerGreatLakes.WhiletheWendathomeland
durationoflactationalamenorrheaisdetermined atthetimeofEuropeancontactwas“Wendake,”
by many factors (Snodgrass 2012), exclusive situated between Lake Simcoe and Georgian
and frequent suckling interrupts the ovulatory Bay, their immediate ancestors had occupied
cycle (McNeilly 1994), thereby influencing the the north central shore of Lake Ontario. After
spacing of pregnancies. In this and other ways, about A.D. 1615, their political, economic, and
patterns of weaning inform our understanding belief systems were observed and documented
of human behavior in diverse environmental by the explorer Samuel de Champlain (Biggar
contexts(Humphrey2010;McDade2001;Wells 1922–1936)andbymissionariessuchasRecollet
andStock2007). FatherGabrielSagardandtheJesuits(Thwaites
The research described here explores this 1896–1901; Wrong 1939). Information about
topic through new archaeologically derived childbirth, infant care, and childhood is very
information about a group of horticulturists sparse in these records. Birth spacing appears
whosenumbersweregrowingpriortoEuropean to have been actively managed, with the use of
intrusion, and about whom there is also ethno- behavioral measures to limit pregnancies. The
graphic and historic information. Through the Jesuitsrecordedthatparentsabstainedfromsex-
patterns of infant and childhood nutrition, we ualintercourseduringthetwotothreeyearsthat
can generate information about the dynamics achildwasnursed(Thwaites1896–1901:8:127).
of growth in population numbers as well as Sagardreportedthatchildbirthwasunaccom-
informationaboutthecareofchildrenwithinthat paniedbyritual,withanexpectationthatwomen
society. would go through labour and delivery on their
Past agricultural groups may have weaned own, then return to normal activities as quickly
their children at a younger age than foragers as possible after the birth (Wrong 1939:130).
did,andthismayhavefueledglobalpopulation Cradleboards were typically used for infants,
expansion.Infact,Bocquet-Appel(2011)argues whichensuredthattheirmotherscouldreturnto
that the transition to agriculture allowed global field work quickly while still being nearby for
human population to increase 12-fold during breastfeedingandcare(Biggar1922:141;Wrong
the Holocene, from six million hunter-fisher- 1939:129). The lack of initial fanfare for the
foragers to over seven billion people today. birthdoesnotdiminishtheimportanceofbirths
Farming generally supports increased dietary to the community, as subsequent ceremonies
carbohydrateintakeandapositivereturnonpost- performedshortlyafterbirthservedtocelebrate
partumenergybalance,leadingtoreducedbirth theinfant’sarrival.Onesuchceremonyinvolved
spacingandpopulationgrowth(Bocquet-Appel the piercing of the infant’s ears and subsequent
2011).Itisdifficulttotestthishypothesis,since adornmentoftheears(Wrong1939:127).Nam-
quantitative information about infant feeding ingceremoniesforinfantswereconsideredwith
practices is sparse, extant forager groups often gravity, as infants often carried the names of
live in marginal circumstances, and modern familymemberswhohaddied.Intheseinstances,
commercial influences on mothers’ decisions theinfantsweresaidtocontinuetoembodythe
can be pervasive. Information about the infant characteristics of their dead relatives (Thwaites
feeding practices of past groups can be used to 1896–1901:10:223).
betterunderstandpossiblepatterneddifferences Whileprimarilybreastfed,childrenwerealso
inweaningpracticesthroughspaceandtime.The given meat that the mother had chewed well
study of weaning practices can also inform us (Tooker 1964:123). In the event of the death of
about past people’s lives, by revealing crucial the mother, fathers were reported to have fed
decisions that were made by caregivers in the children by filling their mouths with water in
past. Successful care and nurturing of infants which maize had been boiled and placing the
forms the basis of any group’s survival, yet child’s mouth against his own, thereby making
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246 AMERICANANTIQUITY [Vol.82,No.2,2017
the child take the liquid (Wrong 1939:128). remainsappeartohavebeenpurposefullycomin-
Adultssawchildrenasbeneficial,astheyallowed gled (Merrett 2003; Pfeiffer 1980; Pfeiffer and
for the growth of the community and provided Fairgrieve 1994; Williamson and Steiss 2003).
care for their aging parents (Wrong 1939:127). One demographic category normally missing
Children were encouraged to practice the skills fromossuariesisthatofnewborns.Theirremains
thattheywouldneedasadults,suchasshooting occurwithinorverynearoccupationsites,often
with a bow and arrow (boys) or pounding corn in contexts that suggest solicitous care directed
(girls)(Wrong1939:133). towardtheirburial.Studiesofindividualjuvenile
Archaeological evidence suggests that the skeletons suggest that growth lagged prior to
Huron-Wendatpopulationincreasedinnumbers theirdeaths.Whencombinedwithevidencefrom
after A.D. 900, largely as a consequence of burial modes, researchers have concluded that
the adoption of maize agriculture (Williamson communitiesdirectedcaretowardchildrenwho
2014). A population of over 30,000 (of Huron- had chronic ill health (Forrest 2010; Kapches
WendatandneighboringTionontaté)bytheearly 1976;SaundersandMelbye1990).
seventeenthcenturyisthoughttohavebeenthe Carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios from the
result of “relatively low juvenile mortality and retainedteethandfromsomefragmentsofadher-
highfertility”(Warrick2008:244)duringthepre- ing bone have provided a picture of Huron-
cedingcenturies.Thisincreaseinnumbersalso Wendatadultdiet.Consistentwithotherlinesof
suggests that, on a social level, Huron-Wendat archaeologicalevidence,isotopevaluesindicate
parents showed significant parental investment thatrelianceonmaizeasaprimarysourceoffood
andcare.Thequalitativeandquantitativeaspects energy was established by the early fourteenth
ofavailablefoodmayhavebeencomponentsof century (Pfeiffer et al. 2016; van der Merwe
infantfeedingmanagement. etal.2003).Beans(Phaseolusvulgaris)andthe
Cucurbitaceaewerealsoimportantplantsgrown
StudyContext
bytheWendat(HartandLovis2013:196);these
Theresearchpresentedhereismadepossibleby areC plants.Dietarysourcesofanimalprotein
3
aninnovativeagreementbetweentheUniversity were varied. There was particular reliance on
of Toronto and the Huron-Wendat Nation of diversetypesoffishaswellaswhite-taileddeer
Wendake, Quebéc. Prior to the repatriation and (Odocoileusvirginianus).Comparisonofvalues
reburial of their ancestral remains, the Huron- fromteethandbonefromthesamepersonsindi-
Wendatauthorizedtheretentionofselectedteeth, cates that juveniles (mid-childhood) consumed
so that the descendants could continue to learn more maize and less animal protein than adults
moreabouttheirancestors(PfeifferandLesage (Pfeifferetal.2016).Theresearchpresentedhere
2014).Thisworkcontributestoagrowingcom- builds on previous studies, expanding the num-
pendium, providing new knowledge from the ber of permanent teeth and adding samples of
study of human teeth retained from ancestral deciduousteethtoexplorethedietsofancestral
Huron-Wendatarchaeologicalcontexts(Pfeiffer Huron-Wendatinfantsandchildren.
etal.2014,2016;vanderMerweetal.2003).The
sites represented in this study were ossuaries:
ToothDevelopmentandChildGrowth
secondary comingled burials that are associ-
ated with the Feast of the Dead, an important Tooth formation is a relatively predictable
componentofHuron-Wendatspirituallife(Hei- aspectofchildgrowth.Enamelandpre-dentine
denreich1971:148–151;Tooker1964:134–140; cells begin formation synchronously, from the
Trigger1969:106–112,1976:85–90;Williamson dentine-enameljunction(DEJ);thetoothforms
andPfeiffer2003).Descendantsinterredthebod- fromcusptiptorootapex(Hillson2014:50).The
iescollectivelyinlargepitsconstructedpriorto isotopic ratios of interest are incorporated into
therelocationofvillages.Studiesofthesitesand theformingtissue,whichsubsequentlymineral-
the human remains disinterred from them con- izes. Although all aspects of the mineralization
firm ethnographic observations that almost all process are not understood (Nanci 2012), min-
communitymemberswereincludedandthatthe eralizationappearstofollowapproximatelytwo
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Pfeifferetal.] PATTERNSOFWEANINGAMONGANCESTRALHURON-WENDATCOMMUNITIES 247
weeks after initial matrix formation (Burt and at which the crown is one-half complete. This
Garvie-Lok2013). occursbetween ages1.5and2.5years(AlQah-
Like radiographic studies of living children, tani et al. 2010). By 2.5 years, the crown is
studies of archaeologically derived dental tis- three-quarterscomplete,sodentinefrombeneath
sues focus on the mineralized tissues. To this theenamelprovidesanindicationofdietatthat
end, standards of dental development form the age.Rootformationproceedsfrom3to10years
reference point. The newest such chart, based (Hillson1996:123). Becausethepermanent M
1
on the largest, most carefully chosen reference beginsdentinemineralizationataboutthesame
sample, is the London Atlas (AlQahtani et al. timeasthedm completesitsrootformation(or
1
2010).Hillson(2014:54)notestheimprovements slightlyprior),theinformationprovidedbythese
introduced by the London Atlas, but adds the twoteethrepresentsacross-sectionalstudyofthe
general caution that, while “the average age at continuumofdevelopmentthroughinfancyand
attainment of dental development stages . . . earlychildhood.
varies considerably less between populations
than,say,equivalentskeletaldevelopmentstages,
StableIsotopesAppliedtoInfantandChild
individuals within those populations can depart
FeedingPatterns
inbothtimingandsequencefromtheaverage.”
Ourstudyfocusesonageofattainmentofdental Researchers have explored δ15N (see Methods
developmental stages, as characterized by the sectionfordefinition)asameansoftrackingthe
LondonAtlas. weaning process for several decades (Dupras
The first deciduous mandibular molar (dm ) 2010; Fogel et al. 1989; Humphrey 2014;
1
begins dentine formation prior to birth (Hillson Katzenberg et al. 1996; Reynard and Tuross
1996:124).Mineralizationisclearlyapparentby 2015; Schurr and Powell 2005; Tsutaya and
4.5monthsafterbirth,withthecrowncomplete Yoneda 2015). The premise is that suckling
by7.5months.Bytheageof18months,theroot infants are, in effect, consuming maternal body
ishalf-formed,androotformationiscompleteby tissue and are thus a trophic level higher than
2to2.5years.Developmentofthedm isslightly adults in their community; their body tissues
2
behindthatofthedm .At18monthsofage,when shouldthereforerecordelevatedδ15N.Asinfants
1
dm rootformationishalfcompleted,dm root gradually incorporate other types of foods into
1 2
formation is beginning. Root formation of dm their diets, δ15N is expected to decline until it
2
iscompleteby3.5years(AlQahtanietal.2014). matches adult values. The degree of elevation
Unlessaninfantwasfedalternatefoodsfrom is not well understood. From the available data
earlyinfancy,thepostnataldentinefrombeneath (summarized in Reynard and Tuross 2015),
the deciduous crown will reflect the isotopic it seems that milk is probably 2 to 3‰ more
enrichment associated with the consumption of positive than the mother’s diet. If the diet-to-
mother’s milk (Fogel et al. 1989; Fuller et al. tissue offset is the same in infants and adults,
2006).Deciduousteethcomefromtheremainsof then(assuminganisotopicallyconstantdiet)the
infantsandyoungchildrenwhodidnotsurviveto infant’s bone or dentine collagen should be 2
adulthood.AmongIroquoians,childrenwhodid to 3‰ more enriched than the mother’s (Fogel
notreachadulthoodexperiencedstuntedskeletal et al. 1989; Fuller, Fuller, et al. 2006). Despite
growth(Forrest2010).Possibly,motherssuckled the many unknowns, studies report differences
childreninfalteringhealthmore,orlonger,than ofapproximatelythismagnitudebetweenadults
infantsandchildreningoodhealth.Thestudyof andyoungchildren(Claytonetal.2006;Fuller,
permanentteethinadditiontodeciduousteethis Molleson, et al. 2006; Katzenberg and Pfeiffer
thusahelpfulcorollary,sincetheirisotopevalues 1995). While this effect also applies to δ13C
document the diets of children who survived values, breastfed infants have δ13C values that
at least to adolescence, and in most cases to areenrichedbyonlyabout1‰overadultfemale
adulthood. values (Richards et al. 2006). Discernment of
Thedentineofthefirstpermanentmandibular such a small enrichment is difficult. It should
molar is radiographically visible at the point be noted that nitrogen in consumer tissue
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248 AMERICANANTIQUITY [Vol.82,No.2,2017
derivesprimarilyfromdietaryprotein,although groundactivitiesandtop-downexcavationmeth-
small amounts may be incorporated from other ods,ledtoagreatdealofbonebreakage,whichin
sources, e.g., dietary urea, via gut microflora turnlimitedreconstructionofindividualbroken
(Reynard and Tuross 2015). Therefore, δ15N bonesandnormallyprecludedtheidentification
tracks the protein component of the diet, rather of individual skeletons. Ossuaries constructed
thanthewholediet. priortothearrivalofEuropeanstendtocontain
Studies based on bone collagen have gen- veryfewartifacts,makingitdifficulttoassociate
erated information about the timing and pace themwiththevillageswhosemembersbuiltthem
of weaning among various past communities (Figure1, Table1). The three oldest ossuaries
(Clayton et al. 2006; Katzenberg and Pfeiffer in this study (Fairty, Uxbridge, and Kleinburg)
1995; Schuur and Powell 2005; Wright and were situated just north of Toronto while the
Schwarcz1999).Challengesassociatedwiththat seventeenth-century sites were further north in
researchincludethefrequentlackofprecisionin Simcoe County, the location of the historic
estimates of age at death, the frequently small homeland of the Huron-Wendat, now referred
number of infant and child skeletons available to as Old Wendake. The consolidation of the
forstudy,anduncertaintyintheisotopictrophic Huron-Wendatconfederacyoccurredthere,after
offsets(ReynardandTuross2015). the movement of communities from the north
Serialassessmentofdentaltissueprovides a shoreofLakeOntarioandtheTrentValley(Birch
waytoreconstructinfantandchilddietfromthe andWilliamson2013;Williamson2014:29–42).
teethofpersonswhodidnotdieuntillongafter Excavated in 1956, the Fairty ossuary
tooth formation was complete (Beaumont et al. included the skeletal remains of at least 512
2012; Burt 2015; Burt and Garvie-Lok 2013; persons (Anderson 1963; Gruspier 1999; Pfeif-
Dupras and Tocheri 2007; Eerkens et al. 2011; fer and Fairgrieve 1994). Unfortunately, details
Fuller et al. 2003). By focusing on permanent regarding the exact location and excavation of
molars, this approach supports the exploration the site were lost. Lacking diagnostic artifacts,
ofsexdifferences(EerkensandBartelink2013), the site’s age comes from radiocarbon dating
since mature skeletal material can be differen- of a human tooth (Beta-397304, 690±30B.P.;
tiated in ways that infant and juvenile skeletal δ13C=−11.4‰), which provided two sigma
material cannot. This methodological approach calibrated ages ranges of A.D. 1265–1312
alsohasbeenusedtoexplorethecharacteristics (p=0.69) and 1358–1388 (p=0.26). One of
ofpost-weaningdietsduringchildhood(Eerkens the ossuary’s associated villages may be the
etal.2016;Greenwaldetal.2016).Horizontally fourteenth-century Robb site, a roughly 2 ha
positioned slices do not neatly match the arch- unpalisaded village consisting of nine widely
like pattern of dentine growth, but contiguous spacedlonghousesandanextensivemiddenona
slicesdoprovidearollingaverageofisotopicval- slope above Milliken Creek, a tributary of the
ueswithinthesequentiallydevelopingdentine. Rouge River (Williamson 2014:18–19). Given
thenumberofpeopledocumentedintheossuary,
morethanonevillagemayhavecontributedtoits
Materials
formation.
Excavated from 1975 to 1977, the Uxbridge
FiveOssuaries
ossuaryincludedtheremainsofatleast457per-
The five communities in this study all prac- sons. Pfeiffer and Fairgrieve (1994) summarize
ticed secondary, ossuary burial. While other studiesoftheskeletalcollection,butnopublica-
Iroquoian speakers of the broader region also tiondescribestheexcavation.Lackingdiagnostic
practiced communal burial, Ancestral Huron- artifacts,thesite’sagecomes fromradiocarbon
Wendatossuariesaredeeppits(Williamsonand dating of charcoal found 182 cm below the
Steiss2003),inwhichthebonesarecomingledin ossuary’ssurface(I-9865,460±80B.P.)andan
amannerconsistentwithobservers’accountsof AMS date on a human tooth (Beta 403922,
purposefulmixing(Pfeiffer1980).Thismixing, 460±30BP; δ13C=−10.0‰). The first date
combinedwithpressurefromsubsequentabove- calibrates at two sigma to A.D. to 1311–1359
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Pfeifferetal.] PATTERNSOFWEANINGAMONGANCESTRALHURON-WENDATCOMMUNITIES 249
Table1.ArchaeologicalSitesIncludedinStudy.
Samplesizes
Deciduous Permanent
Sitename Context/Century Sources Teeth Slices Teeth Slices
Fairty Ossuary/14th (Williamson2014) 10 54 10 67
AlGt-3
Uxbridge Ossuary/15th (Pfeifferetal.2016) 11 62 10 68
BbGs-3
Kleinburg Ossuary/16th (Williamson2014) 10 56 9 60
AlGv-1
Warminster Ossuary/17th (Mullen1990; 3 21 3 21
(Cahiagué) Sykes1983)
BdBv-1
Maurice Ossuary/17th (Jerkic´1975) 1 6 7 48
BeHa-1
Total 35 199 39 264
Figure1.Mapofthestudyregion,witharchaeologicalsitesidentifiedchronologically.PreparedbyJonasFernandez,
ArchaeologicalServicesInc.
(p=0.10) and A.D. 1387–1638 (p=0.90) with probabilityofA.D.1437.Recentarchaeological
a median probability of A.D. 1456 (calibrated workdirectedbyWilliamsonconfirmsacontem-
with CALIB REV7.1.0; Stuiver and Reimer poraneous 2.5 ha mid-fifteenth-century village
1993). The AMS date calibrates at two sigma named Balthazar is situated 200 m from the
to A.D. 1413–1466 (p=0.95), with a median ossuary.
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250 AMERICANANTIQUITY [Vol.82,No.2,2017
Excavated in 1970, the Kleinburg ossuary molarscamefromdifferentmandiblesandthus
includedtheremainsofatleast561persons;as different persons. We have combined the two
above,PfeifferandFairgrieve(1994)summarize in the analysis, noting the effect of the dm as
2
previousstudies,butnodescriptionoftheexca- appropriate(Table2;SupplementalTable1).
vation exists. Grave goods, including hundreds
PermanentTeeth
of shell discoidal and glass beads, complete
iron and brass pots, and other brass and copper Selected for their absence of caries and light
artifactsdatetheossuarytobetweenA.D.1580 occlusal wear (no secondary dentine), the teeth
and1610(Williamson2014:25).TheKleinburg representadultsofbothsexeswhodiedinearly
ossuary is associated with the Skandatut site, to mid-adulthood. There are 39 M teeth from
1
the last village to have been occupied in the five ossuaries (Table2; Supplemental Table 2).
Humber and Don River sequence prior to the Twenty-three M are from mandibles that were
1
movement of the community from the north completeenoughforsextobeascertained,based
shoreofLakeOntariotoOldWendakeinSimcoe primarilyonthementaleminence(Buikstraand
County, the historic homeland of the Huron- Ubelaker 1994:Figure4). The groupings here
Wendat (Williamson 2014:25). The village site include those individuals for whom we could
covers 2.6 ha and was surrounded by a one- to confidentlyassignsex,aswellasthoseforwhom
two-row palisade. Surface collections from the sexassignmentwas“probable”(seeSupplemen-
sitealsoyieldednumerousshellbeadsalongwith tal Table 2). The samples from the earlier two
brassscrapandglassbeads. sitesincludeninemales(amentaleminencescore
Excavated from 1946 through 1979, the of 4 or 5) and five females (a mental eminence
Warminster village consisted of two, probably scoreof1or2).Thelaterthreesitesincludethree
contemporaneous, palisaded sections approxi- malesandsixfemales.
mately 165 m apart (Sykes 1983). The south
village was 2.6 ha in size, while the north was
Methods
3.4 ha, the latter yielding evidence of the pres-
enceof80distincthouses(Sykes1983:81,85). Age estimates used in this study are based on
Trigger(1976:304)discussedthepossibilitythat median values from the London Atlas of Tooth
Warminsterwasthehistoricallyrecordedvillage Development and Eruption (AlQahtani et al.
ofCahiagué,whichSamueldeChamplainvisited 2010). Comparisons indicate that the Atlas is
in A.D. 1615. However, Fitzgerald (1986:3–7) superior to earlier dental development charts,
argued that the site dates to after A.D. 1620 including one developed for use with North
basedon glassbead chronology. Unfortunately, Americanaboriginaldentalremains(AlQahtani
muchoftheskeletalmaterialfromthevillage’s et al. 2014). All teeth were catalogued, pho-
associated ossuary could not be located at the tographed,andmoldedasnegativecasts.Usinga
time of repatriation, so our sample of skeletal hand-heldDremelsawfittedwithanemerycut-
materialforthissiteissmall. off wheel, teeth were cut in half in the vertical
TheMauriceossuarywasexcavated in1968 plane, from the cleft between the roots to the
andincludedtheremainsof132persons(Jerkic´ occlusal surface. One half was set aside for
1975), although only 57 could be located at future research. If the two halves had roots of
thetimeofrepatriation.Theossuaryglassbead differing lengths, the longer root was preferred
assemblage suggests its age lies between A.D. foranalysis.
1630and1650(Jerkic´ 1969;Motykova1969). Each deciduous tooth was divided into
five to seven horizontal slices for analysis,
DeciduousTeeth for a total of 199 δ15N determinations. Each
Herewereportonatotalof35mandibulardecid- permanent tooth was divided into a maximum
uousteethfromthefiveossuaries.Thirty-threeof ofsevenhorizontalslicesforatotalof264δ15N
theteetharedeciduousfirstmolars(dm );twoare determinations (Table2). The coronal dentine
1
deciduous second molars (dm ), one each from beneaththeenamelwasdividedintoamaximum
2
Warminster and Maurice. The first and second ofthreeslices,fromtheDEJmovingtowardthe
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Pfeifferetal.] PATTERNSOFWEANINGAMONGANCESTRALHURON-WENDATCOMMUNITIES 251
Table2.δ15Ndentineandδ13CdentineDeciduousToothValues.
δ15N(‰) δ13C(‰)
Decid. Decid. Decid. Post- Decid. Decid. Decid. Post-
N Crown1 CEJ apex Weaning2 crown CEJ apex Weaning2
Fairty 10 Mean 14.1 14.5 12.7 11.7 −9.6 −9.7 −10.8 −10.7
s.d. 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.5 1.0 0.7 0.6 1.1
N=15 N=15
Uxbridge 11 Mean 14.0 14.3 13.0 11.4 −9.6 −9.8 −10.8 −10.9
s.d. 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 1.2 0.6 1.2 0.9
N=16 N=16
Kleinburg 10 Mean 13.3 14.1 12.8 11.8 −10.4 −10.3 −11.1 −10.2
s.d. 1.4 1.0 0.9 0.4 1.1 0.9 1.1 0.7
N=16 N=16
Warminster 3 Mean 15.0 14.9 14.0 11.9 −10.7 −11.6 −12.6 −10.5
s.d. 0.4 1.6 2.1 0.5 1.9 1.9 1.4 0.9
N=6 N=6
Maurice 1 Mean 14.4 13.2 12.5 12.7 −9.5 −9.8 −9.5 −10.5
s.d. 0.7 1.2 0.1 0.7
N=8 N=8
TOTALS Mean 14.0 14.3 12.9 −10.1 −10.1 −11.0
s.d. 1.2 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.1
1Valuesincorporateallslicesfrombeneaththeenamel.
2Presumptiveadultapicalvaluesfrompermanentteethoftheircommunity(Pfeifferetal.2016).
cemento-enamel junction (CEJ). The attempt and flexibility of the dentine. When no hard
to divide the dentine beneath the enamel into core of mineralized tissue remained, the acid
multiple slices was not consistently successful, was poured off, the samples rinsed in distilled
so the number of data points from coronal water and treated overnight in 0.1M NaOH to
dentine is variable. The other slices represent removehumiccontaminants,thenrinsedagainin
tissuemovingfromCEJtoapex. distilled water. Next, the demineralized dentine
The enamel was removed, in most cases by wascutwithascalpelintoamaximumofseven
grinding it away with a diamond-tipped dental horizontally oriented slices: three from beneath
drill bit attached to the Dremel device. The thecrownandfourfromtheCEJtotheapex.
resulting enamel powder was saved for further The work was completed between 2013 and
analysis. In some cases, fragments of enamel 2014. In 2013, only deciduous molars were
couldbebrokencleanlyawayfromthedentine. included. The dentine beneath the crown was
The tooth root was lightly abraded to remove labeled as slices 1 and 2, but isotopic values
cementum and any surface contamination. A for those two slices have been averaged to
few samples appeared brittle and in danger of provide a single observation. The subsequent
breakingupbecauseofvibrationsfromthedrill. four slices represent the dentine from the CEJ
On these, we left the occlusal enamel in place, to the root apex, which were labeled 3 through
to be removed after demineralization when the 6.In2014,bothdeciduousandpermanentteeth
softeneddentinecouldbecutawaywithoutrisk wereincludedinthestudy.Thedentinebeneath
offragmentingthespecimen. the crown was separated into a maximum of
Thedentinewasweighedbeforebeingplaced three slices: 1A, 1B, 1C. The subsequent slices
in dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) (0.5M for werelabeled2through5.Becauseofdifficulties
larger, more robust specimens, 0.3M for those separating dentine from enamel, varying num-
that appeared brittle or fragile). The acid was bersofcrownsliceswereobtainedinbothyears
changedeverydayandtheprogressivedeminer- (Figure2).
alization of the samples was monitored visu- The slices were soaked in distilled water,
ally, assessed through the increasing softness changeddaily,untilthepHremainedneutral,and
https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2016.36 Published online by Cambridge University Press
252 AMERICANANTIQUITY [Vol.82,No.2,2017
Figure2.Diagramillustratingthesamplingstrategyemployedandlabelinganatomicalfeaturesthatarediscussedin
thetext.PreparedbyNeilRusch.
thenfreeze-dried.Theweightofeachslicewas gelatine, seal bone and valine were analyzed
recorded, but given that there were sometimes with each batch of samples. Repeated analyses
slight losses of material during slicing, it is not ofthesestandardsyieldedstandarddeviationsof
possible to calculate precise weight percentage lessthan0.2‰forbothnitrogenandcarbon.
collagenyields.
In this study, the demineralized tooth roots
Results
consisted of springy, well-preserved collagen
that retained the size and shape of the orig-
DeciduousTeeth
inal samples. No rootlets or other macro-
contaminantswereobserved.%C,%NandC/N The deciduous teeth generally demonstrate
ratios reported in Supplemental Tables 1 and 2 declining δ15N from crown to apex. The
dentine
attest to this good preservation. We therefore mean value for dentine from crown samples
considereditunnecessarytosolubilizeandfilter is δ15N 14.0‰ (±1.2‰, range from 16.8
dentine
the collagen, and simply proceeded to combust to 11.1‰), and that for the apex samples is
the dentine slices for analysis (Sealy et al. δ15N 12.8‰ (±0.8‰, range from 14.1 to
dentine
2014). 11.4‰, excluding a single outlier [Warminster
Approximately 0.4 mg of each dentine slice 16023at16.1‰])(SupplementalTable1).There
was weighed into a tin cup and combusted is no detectable pattern of directional change
at 1020°C in a Flash 2000 organic elemental in δ15N values from the DEJ to the CEJ. In
analyzer.TheCO andN gasesproducedwere almost all teeth, there is a gradual decline in
2 2
purified and swept in a stream of helium gas enrichmentfromCEJtoapex,suggestingthatthe
through a Conflo IV interface into a Delta V weaningprocessbeganduringtheperiodofdm
1
Plus isotope ratio mass spectrometer (Thermo development.Onetooth(Fairty16041)showsa
Scientific,Germany). veryabruptdeclineinδ15N,consistentwithrapid
Results are expressed in the delta nota- weaning,andone(Warminster16023)showsthe
tion relative to air (for nitrogen) or Vienna maintenanceofaveryenrichedδ15Npatternfrom
PeeDee Belemnite (for carbon), where δ15N= CEJtoapex(Figure3).
(15N/14N /15N/14N − 1) × 1000‰; Deciduous crown values represent diet at 6
sample standard
δ13Ciscalculatedinthesameway,usingtheiso- to8monthsofage,whileapexvaluesrepresent
tope pair 13C/12C. In-house standards of Merck dietat2to2.5yearsofage.Mostapicalvaluesdo
https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2016.36 Published online by Cambridge University Press
Pfeifferetal.] PATTERNSOFWEANINGAMONGANCESTRALHURON-WENDATCOMMUNITIES 253
Figure3.Deciduousδ15NdentinevaluesfromCEJtoapex.Figurestotheleftshowtheprecontactsites,figurestothe
rightshowthepostcontactsites.Thetwodm2teethareincludedinthelatter.Dashedlinesindicateweakorabsent
breastfeedingsignal(Fairty16042,Kleinburg16034);abruptweaning(Fairty16041);littleornoevidenceofnon-breast
milkfoodsources(Warminster16023).(Coloronline)
notreachtheexpectedpost-weaningδ15Nvalues Table3.δ15Ndentineandδ13CdentineValuesofTwo
(Table2).Thisindicatesthatmostchildrenwere DeciduousTeeth.
notfullyweanedby2to2.5years.Thecollective
Catalog δ15N(‰) δ13C(‰) Approx.age
apicalvalueofthedeciduousteethisδ15N
dentine Number range range atdeath
12.8‰(±0.8‰,notincludingtheanomalously
F16042 12.5to13.3 −11.4to−8.3 ∼6yr.
enrichedWarminsterchild).Thecollectiveaver-
K16034 11.1to12.2 −10.8to−9.4 unknown
age from permanent tooth apices is δ15N
dentine
11.9‰(±0.8‰).Thesevaluescomefromtissue
formed in mid-childhood (8 to 10 years), but The data set includes two deciduous teeth
they can confidently be characterized as post- thatbearnoclearsignalofbreastfeeding:Fairty
weaning dietary indicators. Apical δ15N values 16042 and Kleinburg 16034. Their initial δ15N
ofpermanentteetharesignificantlylessenriched values are low, and throughout tooth develop-
thantheδ15Nvaluesofdeciduousteeth(Mann- menttheyshowchangeof1‰orless.Theδ13C
WhitneyZ=4.51,p<0.0001). values of these two teeth are also quite stable.
Five of 33 deciduous first molars achieved Kleinburg 16034 shows consistently positive
post-weaningisotopevaluesoftheircommunity δ13Cvaluesthatcouldrepresentmaizegruel,but
by the time the apex was formed. Two of 21 Fairty 16042 shows quite variable δ13C values
deciduous first molars from the earlier sites (Table3). If these infants were not breastfed,
of Fairty and Uxbridge had achieved a post- alternativefoodsseemtohavevariedonacase-
weaningvalue,whilethreeof12deciduousfirst by-case basis, perhaps including chewed foods
molars from the later (Euro-contact) sites show orwaterymaizegruelasdescribedabove.
post-weaning values at the apex. The apex of Withregardtoδ13Cvaluesmoregenerally,the
one of the two dm teeth reached the post- magnitudeoftheexpectedtrophicenrichmentis
2
weaning community average. The deciduous smaller, so the information is less clear. With
δ15N values suggest that weaning may the exception of the three quite variable teeth
dentine
have proceeded slightly more quickly in com- fromWarminster,alldeciduousapicalmeansare
munities that were affected by the presence of within one standard deviation of their commu-
Europeans. nity’spost-weaningvalue.
https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2016.36 Published online by Cambridge University Press