Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas: The IMO's Role in Protecting Vulnerable Marine Areas

395 Pages·2008·3.15 MB·English

by  Markus J. Kachel (auth.)

International Max Planck Research School (IMPRS)
for Maritime Affairs
at the University of Hamburg
Hamburg Studies on Maritime Affairs
Volume 13

Edited by

Jürgen Basedow
Peters Ehlers
Hartmut Graßl
Hans-Joachim Koch
Rainer Lagoni
Gerhard Lammel
Ulrich Magnus
Peter Mankowski
Marian Paschke
Thomas Pohlmann
Uwe Schneider
Jürgen Sündermann
Rüdger Wolfrum
Wilfried Zahel
Markus J. Kachel
Particularly Sensitive
Sea Areas
The IMO’s Role in Protecting
Vulnerable Marine Areas
123
MarkusJ. Kachel
Marchlewskistraße 41
10243 Berlin
[email protected]
Doctoral Thesis, University of Hamburg, 2008
ISBN 978-3-540-78778-5 e-ISBN 978-3-540-78779-2
DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-78779-2
Hamburg Studies on Maritime Affairs ISSN 1614-2462
Library of Congress Control Number: 2008925527
© 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
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Preface and Acknowledgements
The idea of this study emanated from one of many lively discussions I had during
my time as a student on the LL.M. programme at University College London. In
the aftermath of the disastrous Prestige sinking off the French Atlantic coast in
November 2002, I came across the legal questions posed by Particularly Sensitive
Sea Areas. Prof. Malcolm Forster of UCL encouraged me to pursue my research
and eventually supervised a study on the Western European PSSA. I am greatly
indebted to him for stimulating and sustaining my interest in this subject matter.
When I considered starting a PhD study on the broader legal implications of the
PSSA concept, Prof. Dr. Hans-Joachim Koch (University of Hamburg), my teacher
and mentor for many years, supported my project and agreed to supervise it.
I would like to express my sincerest appreciation to him. He not only aroused my
interest in environmental law, but also taught me always to explore the subtleties
of an issue. Being an assistant to him for some years was an indispensable
prerequisite for conceptualising, drafting and finalising such a long study.
I am also greatly indebted to Prof. Dr. Peter Ehlers (President, Federal
Maritime and Hydrographic Agency) for co-reviewing the study and for frequent
discussions on problems I encountered during my research. I would furthermore
like to thank Prof. Dr. Rainer Lagoni (Institute for the Law of the Sea and Mari-
time Law, University of Hamburg) for having introduced me to the international
law of the sea and for not refraining from any discussion, although we tend to
disagree on certain issues.
I would also like to mention Prof. Philippe Sands and Prof. Richard Macrory of
UCL, whose teaching considerably expanded my interest in and intellectual grasp
of international legal issues. The discussions I had with them as well as with other
students at UCL were a challenging and continuing source of inspiration.
The help of many charming people made it possible for this treatise to be
written. The research assistants of the Institute for the Law of the Sea and
Maritime Law at the University of Hamburg, Tilo Wallrabenstein and Sicco Rah,
as well as the head librarian of the Institute, Mary Pabusch, never refrained from
offering their kind help. Furthermore, I am indebted to my former colleagues
at the Research Unit for Environmental Law (FORUM) at the University of
Hamburg, who never stopped encouraging me to finish this treatise and offered
support in all respects, namely Ursula Prall, Matthias Buck, Moritz Reese, Annette
Wienecke, and Friederike Mechel. Mental support was provided by numerous
other people, of whom I would like to mention my old university fellows Lena
Dammann, Kawus R. Klapp, Jan Gehrken and Heiko Habbe. Thank you!
VI Preface and Acknowledgments

Moreover, I would like to ackknowledge the help of Friedhelm Bertelsmeier,
First Secretary for Transport at the German Embassy, London, Mathias Jonas,
Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency, Stephan Lutter and his colleagues of
the International WWF Centre for Marine Conservation, and to Nadja Salzborn,
German Federal Environment Agency, who all supported my research in various
ways by sharing documents, thoughts and expertise.
My doctoral studies were undertaken during my time as a scholar of the
International Max-Planck Research School for Maritime Affairs at the University
of Hamburg. The IMPRS not only provided a very generous grant to support my
research activities over the course of two years but also offered an exceptionally
fertile academic environment. Wolfgang Wurmnest and Silke Knauth, who coor-
dinate the school, were always happy to help with administrative nuisances. The
IMPRS also generously sponsored the publication of this book.
I would also like to express my gratitude to Roger A. Graves, who pain-
stakingly proof-read my text and deleted remaining Germanisms, as well as to
Ingeborg Stahl, who helped me to finalise the layout of the book.
Finally, I would like to thank my family, in particular my parents, who never
stopped providing moral and financial support – and so much more. Thank you for
everything!
Before I went to school, my grandfather used to take me to the port of Hamburg
once a week, which gave me a great feeling for ports, ships and the sea. Sadly, he
died too early to see me finish my doctoral thesis.
Last but not least, I must say thank you to Susann. She always took care of me
and cheered me up, especially at times when I could not see how this study could
ever be finished. I am thankful I can live with her and our two boys, Noah Leander
and Jasper Henri. They keep reminding me of what is important in life.

Berlin, January 2008 Markus J. Kachel
Summary of Contents
Abbreviations......................................................................................................XV
Introduction............................................................................................................1
Part 1: The Marine Environment: Oceans under Threat.................................5
Chapter 1: The Oceans – Utilisation and Conflicts...........................................5
Chapter 2: Threats to the Marine Environment: Pollution and
Physical Damage.........................................................................................23

Part 2: Instruments to Protect Specific Marine Areas.....................................37
Chapter 3: Protection of Specific Marine Areas..............................................37
Chapter 4: Protection of Marine Areas in International Law –
Basic Principles...........................................................................................50
Chapter 5: Marine Protected Areas in Multilateral Instruments.....................95

Part 3: Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas: an IMO Instrument to
Protect Marine Areas...........................................................................135
Chapter 6: Protection of the Marine Environment through IMO
within the System of International Institutions.........................................135
Chapter 7: Development and Structure of the PSSA Concept:
Implementation and Coordination of Protective Measures......................154
Chapter 8: Associated Protective Measures as the Essential Part
of a PSSA .................................................................................................184

Part 4: The PSSA Concept – Analysis and Assessment.................................233
Chapter 9: Comparison between PSSAs and other Regimes in
International Law......................................................................................233
Chapter 10: Legal Quality of the PSSA Guidelines and their Effect
on Jurisdiction to Implement and Enforce Protective Measures..............250
Chapter 11: PSSAs and Ocean Governance: Current Inter-
dependencies and Prospects for Future Developments.............................283

Summary.............................................................................................................307
Annex...................................................................................................................329
Bibliography........................................................................................................343
Index....................................................................................................................373
Contents
Abbreviations......................................................................................................XV
Introduction............................................................................................................1
I. Global Shipping and the Marine Environment......................................1
II. Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas and the International
Maritime Organization...........................................................................2
III. Aims of this treatise...............................................................................3
IV. Synopsis.................................................................................................4

Part 1: The Marine Environment: Oceans under Threat.................................5
Chapter 1: The Oceans – Utilisation and Conflicts...........................................5
I. The Marine Environment: Subject and Purpose of Protection..............5
1. Oceans and seas – main physical and chemical properties..............6
2. Functions of the Oceanic Ecosystem................................................7
a) Habitat for Flora and Fauna........................................................8
aa) Benthos...............................................................................8
bb) Pelagic Environment...........................................................9
cc) Example: Coastal Areas....................................................10
dd) Example: Deep Sea...........................................................12
b) Buffer within the Climate System............................................13
c) Food Repository........................................................................14
d) Intrinsic Value...........................................................................15
II. Conflicting Uses of the Oceans............................................................16
1. Shipping..........................................................................................17
2. Tourism...........................................................................................17
3. Off-shore Mining............................................................................19
4. Fishing and Exploitation of other Living Marine
Resources........................................................................................20
5. Energy Production..........................................................................21
III. Concluding Remarks............................................................................22

Chapter 2: Threats to the Marine Environment: Pollution and
Physical Damage.........................................................................................23
I. Sources of Pollution.............................................................................23
II. Types of Pollutants...............................................................................24
1. Hydrocarbon Compounds...............................................................25
2. Persistent Toxic Substances...........................................................27
X Contents

3. Heavy Metals..................................................................................28
4. Radioactive Materials.....................................................................29
5. Nutrients.........................................................................................30
III. Shipping-Related Threats to the Marine Environment........................31
1. Operational Pollution.....................................................................31
2. Accidental Pollution.......................................................................34
3. Damage to Habitats and Animals...................................................35

Part 2: Instruments to Protect Specific Marine Areas....................................37
Chapter 3: Protection of Specific Marine Areas.............................................37
I. Introduction to the Concept of Marine Protected Areas......................37
1. Historical Development and Basic Definitions..............................38
2. Underlying Rationale.....................................................................39
II. Establishing Marine Protected Areas...................................................42
1. Location, Size and Scientific Criteria............................................43
2. Objectives.......................................................................................45
3. Administration and Management: Prerequisite for
Success of MPAs............................................................................46
III. Related Developments in International Environmental
Policy....................................................................................................48

Chapter 4: Protection of Marine Areas in International Law –
Basic Principles...........................................................................................50
I. Introduction: Acceptance in International Law versus
Unilateral Measures.............................................................................51
II. Relevant Principles of International Environmental Law and
International Law of the Sea................................................................52
1. Traditional Ocean Governance: Freedom of Navigation...............54
2. Compliance with Standards: Principle of Flag-State
Enforcement...................................................................................55
3. Principle of Sustainable Development...........................................56
4. Principle of Preventive Action.......................................................59
5. Precautionary Principle..................................................................60
III. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.............................63
1. Basic Rules for the Protection of the Marine
Environment...................................................................................65
2. Maritime Zones as Determinants of the Protective
Regime............................................................................................68
a) Territorial Sea...........................................................................69
b) Exclusive Economic Zone........................................................70
c) High Seas..................................................................................74
d) Straits used for International Navigation..................................75
e) Archipelagic Waters.................................................................78
f) Unique Characteristics of Port State Jurisdiction.....................80
3. Special Rules for Areal Protection in Part XII of
UNCLOS........................................................................................82