Parasitology

468 Pages·2013·4.6 MB·English

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Parasitology
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Parasitology
An Integrated Approach
Alan Gunn
Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
Sarah J. Pitt
University of Brighton, UK
Brighton and Sussex University Hospitals NHS Trust, Brighton, UK
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
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Thiseditionfirstpublished2012
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Gunn,Alan.
Parasitology:anintegratedapproach/AlanGunnandSarahJ.Pitt.
p.;cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-0-470-68424-5(cloth)–ISBN978-0-470-68423-8(pbk.)
I.Pitt,SarahJ.II.Title.
[DNLM: 1.Host-ParasiteInteractions. 2.Parasites–physiology. 3.ParasiticDiseases.QY45]
616.9(cid:2)6–dc23
2011043529
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FirstImpression 2012
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Noneofustrulylivealone
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Contents
Preface xiii
1 Animalassociations 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Animalassociations 1
1.2.1 Symbiosis 2
1.2.2 Commensalism 5
1.2.3 Phoresis 5
1.2.4 Mutualism 6
1.2.5 Parasitism 7
1.2.6 Intra-specificparasites 8
1.2.7 Parasitoids 9
1.2.8 Theconceptofharm 10
1.3 Parasitehosts 11
1.3.1 Protozoaandhelminthsashosts 11
1.3.2 Classesofhostsforparasites 12
1.4 Theco-evolutionofparasitesandtheirhosts 13
1.4.1 Evolutionaryrelationshipsbetweenhostandparasite 14
1.4.2 Parasitesandtheevolutionofsexualreproduction 15
1.5 Parasitismasa‘lifestyle’:advantagesandlimitations 16
1.5.1 Mainadvantagesofaparasiticlifestyle 17
1.5.2 Mainlimitationsofaparasiticlifestyle 17
1.6 Theeconomiccostofparasiticdiseases 18
1.6.1 Economicconsequencesofparasiticdiseasesofhumans 18
1.6.2 Economicconsequencesofparasiticdiseasesofdomesticanimals 19
1.6.3 Estimatingthecostsofmorbidityduetodisease 19
1.6.4 Economicconsequencesofparasiticdiseasesofwildlife 20
1.7 Whyparasiticdiseasesremainaproblem 21
1.8 Taxonomy 24
1.8.1 Thebinomensystem 25
Questions 27
2 Parasiticprotozoa,fungiandplants 28
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Parasiticprotozoa 28
2.2.1 KingdomProtista 28
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2.3 PhylumRhizopoda 29
2.3.1 GenusEntamoeba 29
2.3.2 Otherspeciesofpathogenicamoebae 33
2.4 PhylumMetamonada 34
2.4.1 OrderDiplomonadida 34
2.4.2 OrderTrichomonadida 37
2.5 PhylumApicomplexa 40
2.5.1 GenusPlasmodium 42
2.5.2 Plasmodiumlifecycle 43
2.5.3 GenusTheileria 45
2.5.4 GenusBabesia 46
2.6 SubclassCoccidiasina 50
2.6.1 SuborderEimeriorina 50
2.6.2 Isosporagroup 51
2.6.3 GenusCyclospora 52
2.6.4 FamilySarcocystidae 53
2.6.5 GenusToxoplasma 54
2.6.6 GenusNeospora 58
2.6.7 FamilyCryptosporidiidae 60
2.7 PhylumKinetoplastida 62
2.7.1 GenusLeishmania 63
2.7.2 Leishmanialifecycle 66
2.7.3 GenusTrypanosoma 70
2.8 PhylumChlorophyta 81
2.8.1 GenusPrototheca 82
2.9 Kingdomfungi 83
2.9.1 Microsporidia 83
2.10 Kingdomplantae 85
Questions 85
3 Helminthparasites 86
3.1 Introduction:invertebratetaxonomy 86
3.2 PhylumPlatyhelminthes 87
3.3 ClassTrematoda 87
3.3.1 FamilyFasciolidae 89
3.3.2 FamilyCathaemasiidae:GenusRibeiroia 93
3.3.3 FamilyDicrocoeliidae 95
3.3.4 FamilyOpisthorchiformes 96
3.3.5 FamilyParagonomidae 98
3.3.6 FamilySchistosomatidae 99
3.4 ClassCestoda 103
3.4.1 OrderPseudophyllidea/Diphyllobothriidea 103
3.4.2 OrderCyclophyllidea 104
3.4.3 FamilyTaeniidae 105
3.4.4 FamilyAnoplocephalidae 110
3.5 PhylumAcanthocephala 112
3.6 PhylumNematoda(Nemata) 114
3.6.1 ClassEnoplea 117
3.6.2 ClassRhabdita 121
3.6.3 FamilyOnchocercidae 129
3.6.4 FamilyDracunculidae 132
Questions 135
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CONTENTS ix
4 Arthropodparasites 137
4.1 Introduction 137
4.2 PhylumChelicerata 138
4.2.1 FamilyDemodicidae 139
4.2.2 FamilySarcoptidae 140
4.2.3 FamilyPsoroptidae 143
4.2.4 SuborderIxodida 144
4.2.5 FamilyArgasidae 145
4.2.6 FamilyIxodidae 146
4.2.7 Tickparalysis 147
4.3 PhylumCrustacea 148
4.3.1 SubclassCopepoda 148
4.3.2 Infra-ClassCirripedia 150
4.3.3 SubclassBranchiura 150
4.3.4 SubclassPentastomida–tongueworms 151
4.4 Sub-phylumHexapoda 153
4.4.1 OrderPhthiraptera(lice) 155
4.4.2 OrderSiphonaptera(fleas) 159
4.4.3 OrderDiptera(trueflies) 162
4.4.4 SuborderNematocera 162
4.4.5 SuborderBrachycera 163
4.4.6 FamilyCalliphoridae 166
4.4.7 GenusChrysomya 168
4.4.8 GenusCochliomyia 168
4.4.9 GenusAuchmeromyia 169
4.4.10 GenusCordylobia 170
4.4.11 FamilySarcophagidae 170
4.4.12 FamilyOestridae 171
4.4.13 SubfamilyGasterophilinae 173
4.4.14 SubfamilyHypodermatinae 174
4.4.15 SubfamilyCuterebrinae 176
4.4.16 FamilyStreblidae 177
4.4.17 FamilyNycteribiidae 178
Questions 178
5 Parasitetransmission 180
5.1 Introduction 180
5.2 Contaminativetransmission 181
5.3 Transmissionassociatedwithreproduction 184
5.3.1 Sexualtransmission 184
5.3.2 Transmissionwithinthegametes 187
5.3.3 Congenitaltransmission 188
5.4 Autoinfection 189
5.5 Nosocomialtransmission 190
5.6 Activeparasitetransmission 191
5.7 Hostsandvectors 192
5.7.1 Paratenichosts 192
5.7.2 Intermediatehosts 193
5.7.3 Vectors 194
5.8 Hostfactors 196
5.8.1 Hostidentification 196
5.8.2 Theinfluenceofhostbehaviouronparasitetransmission 197
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5.9 Co-transmissionandinteractionsbetweeninfectiousagents 199
5.10 Howreligioncaninfluenceparasitetransmission 202
5.11 Theinfluenceofwaronparasitetransmission 204
5.12 Theinfluenceofparasitesonhostbehaviour 205
5.13 Environmentalfactors 207
5.13.1 Naturalenvironmentalvariables 207
5.13.2 Pollution 207
5.13.3 Globalwarming 209
Questions 211
6 Immunereactionstoparasiticinfections 212
6.1 Introduction 212
6.2 Invertebrateimmunity 213
6.3 Vertebrateimmunity 215
6.3.1 Innateimmunity 215
6.3.2 Adaptiveimmunity 218
6.3.3 Cell-mediatedimmunity 220
6.4 Innateimmunitytoparasiticinfection 221
6.4.1 Physicalfactors 221
6.4.2 Chemicalandmicrobialfactors 222
6.4.3 Theacuteinflammatoryresponse 223
6.4.4 Cell-mediatedimmunity 225
6.5 Adaptiveimmunity 226
6.5.1 Avoidingthehostimmuneresponse 227
6.5.2 Depressionoftheimmunesystem 232
6.6 Immunitytomalaria 233
6.7 SchistosomamansoniandHepatitisCvirusinteractions 237
6.8 HIV-AIDSandparasiticdisease 238
6.8.1 ParasitesandthetransmissionofHIV 239
6.8.2 Parasite-HIVco-infections 240
6.8.3 Leishmania-HIVco-infections 240
6.8.4 Malaria–HIVco-infections 242
6.8.5 Toxoplasma–HIVco-infections 243
6.8.6 Microsporidia–HIVco-infections 243
Questions 243
7 Pathology 245
7.1 Introduction 245
7.2 Factorsthatinfluencepathogenesis 245
7.2.1 Hostfactorsthatinfluencepathogenesis 245
7.2.2 Parasitefactorsthatinfluencepathogenesis 246
7.3 Mechanismsbywhichparasitesinducepathology 247
7.3.1 Directdamage 248
7.3.2 Indirectdamage 249
7.4 Typesofpathology 250
7.4.1 Abortionandobstetricpathology 250
7.4.2 Anaemia 251
7.4.3 Anorexia 253
7.4.4 Apoptosis 253
7.4.5 Calcification 254
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7.4.6 Cancer 255
7.4.7 Castration 257
7.4.8 Delusionalparasitosis 258
7.4.9 Diarrhoea 258
7.4.10 Elephantiasis 260
7.4.11 Fever 261
7.4.12 Granulationandfibrosis 262
7.4.13 Hyperplasia 264
7.4.14 Hypertrophy 265
7.4.15 Inflammationandulceration 265
7.4.16 Jaundice 267
7.4.17 Metaplasia 267
7.4.18 Pressureatrophy 267
7.4.19 Psychologicaldisturbance 268
7.5 Damagetospecificorgans 269
7.5.1 Thebladder 269
7.5.2 Thebrain 270
7.5.3 Thedigestivesystem 273
7.5.4 Thegenitalia 276
7.5.5 Thekidney 277
7.5.6 Theliver 279
7.5.7 Thelungs 281
7.5.8 Theskin 284
7.5.9 Thespleen 288
7.6 Co-infectionsandpathogenesis 289
Questions 290
8 Theusefulparasite 292
8.1 Introduction:thegoodnessofparasites? 292
8.2 Theimportanceofparasitesforthemaintenanceofahealthyimmunesystem 293
8.2.1 Thehygienehypothesis 293
8.2.2 Type1diabetesmellitus 294
8.2.3 Irritablebowelsyndrome(IBS) 296
8.2.4 Inflammatoryboweldisease 297
8.3 Theuseofparasitestotreatmedicalconditions 297
8.3.1 Helminththerapy 298
8.3.2 Larvaltherapy 302
8.3.3 Leechtherapy 304
8.3.4 Malariatherapy(malariotherapy) 305
8.4 Parasitesassourcesofnovelpharmaceutically-activecompounds 308
8.5 Parasitesasbiologicalcontrolagents 309
8.5.1 LifecycleoftheentomopathogenicnematodesHeterorhabditisandSteinernema 310
8.6 Parasitesasforensicindicators 312
Questions 314
9 Identificationofprotozoanandhelminthparasites 316
9.1 Introduction 316
9.2 Theimportanceofcorrectidentification 316
9.3 Propertiesofanidealdiagnostictest 318
9.4 Isolationofparasites 320
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9.5 Identificationfromgrossmorphology 323
9.5.1 MorphologicalidentificationofEntamoeba 325
9.5.2 MorphologicalidentificationofPlasmodiumandBabesia 326
9.5.3 MorphologicalidentificationofTaeniatapeworms 327
9.5.4 Morphologicalidentificationoffilarialnematodeinfections 327
9.6 Biochemicaltechniques 329
9.7 Immunologicaltechniques 329
9.8 Moleculartechniques 331
9.9 Rapiddiagnostictests(RDTs) 334
9.9.1 Rapiddiagnostictestsformalaria 335
9.9.2 Rapiddiagnostictestforfilariasis 337
9.10 MALDI-TOFMS 337
Questions 338
10 Parasitetreatmentandcontrol 339
10.1 Introduction 339
10.2 Importanceofunderstandingparasitelifecyclesforeffectivetreatmentandcontrol 339
10.3 Treatmentofparasiticdiseases 341
10.3.1 Theidealantiparasiticdrug 341
10.3.2 Pharmaceuticaldrugs 345
10.3.3 DNA/RNAtechnology 347
10.3.4 Molecularchaperones(heatshockproteins) 349
10.3.5 Nanotechnology 350
10.3.6 Quantumdots 352
10.3.7 Naturalremedies 353
10.3.8 Homeopathy 355
10.4 Vaccinesagainstparasiticdiseases 356
10.4.1 Attenuatedvaccines 358
10.4.2 Killedvaccines 359
10.4.3 Recombinantvaccines 359
10.4.4 Toxoidvaccines 360
10.4.5 DNAvaccines 361
10.4.6 Vaccineadministration 362
10.5 Controlofparasiticdiseases 362
10.5.1 Eradication,eliminationandcontrolofparasiticdiseases 362
10.5.2 Education 364
10.5.3 Environmentalmodificationandculturalcontrol 365
10.5.4 RemoteSensing(RS)andGIStechnology 368
10.5.5 Treatingtheindividualorthepopulation 369
10.5.6 Piggy-backingcontrolprogrammes 370
10.5.7 Disruptionstocontrolprogrammes 371
10.5.8 Roleofgovernments,foundations,andaidorganisations 371
Questions 373
References 375
Index 431