PAM 550-99 Yugoslavia: A Country Study

377 Pages·1992·19.8 MB·English

by  United States. Department of the Army

AD-A22 540area
handbook series
Yugoslavia
a country study
E
EtLECT
JULO0 992
is un. ae its
Yugoslavia
a country study
Federal Research Division
Library of Congress
Edited by
Glenn E. Curtis
Research Completed
December 1990
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On the cover: Muslim minaret, Skopje
Third Edition, First Printing, 1992.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Yugoslavia : a country study / Federal Research Division, Library of
Congress ; edited by Glenn E. Curtis. - 3rd ed.
p. cm. - (Area handbook series, ISSN 1057-5294)
(DA pam ; 550-99)
"Supersedes the 1982 edition of Yugoslavia: a country study,
edited by Richard F. Nyrop."-T.p. verso.
"Research completed December 1990."
Includes bibliographical references (pp. 303-319) and index.
ISBN 0-8444-0735-6
1. Yugoslavia. I. Curtis, Glenn E. (Glenn Eldon), 1946-
II. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. III. Area
handbook for Yugoslavia. IV. Series. V. Series : DA pam
550-99.
DR1214.Y83 1992 91-40323
949.7-dc2O CIP
Headquarters, Department of the Army
DA Pam 550-99
For sae by the Supenntennent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402
A
Foreword
This volume is one in a continuing series of books prepared by
the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under
the Country Studies-Area Handbook Program sponsored by the
Department of the Army. The last page of this book lists the other
published studies.
Most books in the series deal with a particular foreign country,
describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national
security systems and institutions, and examining the interrelation-
ships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural
factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social
scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic understanding of
the observed society, striving for a dynamic rather than a static
portrayal. Particular attention is devoted to the people who make
up the society, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their com-
mon interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature
and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their
attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and
political order.
The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not
be construed as an expression of an official United States govern-
ment posit.on, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to
adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections,
additions, and suggestions for changes from readers will be wel-
comed for use in future editions.
Louis R. Mortimer
Chief
Federal Research Division
Library of Congress
Washington, D.C. 20540
iii
Acknowledgments
The authors are indebted to numerous individuals and organi-
zations who gave their time, research materials, advice, and ex-
pertise on Yugoslav affairs to provide data, perspective, and material
support for this volume.
The work of Steven L. Burg and Robert E. Bartos, authors of
the Government and Politics and National Security chapters, respec-
tively, of the previous edition of the Yugoslavia area handbook,
supplied vital foundation material to the new authors of those chap-
ters. Thanks also go to the Embassy of Yugoslavia and the Yugo-
slav National Tourist Office (New York) for supplying the editor
with a large number of photographs from which to choose. The
expert photography of Charles Sudetic and Sam and Sarah Stulberg
has added timely and picturesque images of Yugoslavia. And, in the
final stages of updating current events in Yugoslavia, the firsthand
insights of Paul Pajic of the Library of Congress were invaluable.
Thanks also go to Ralph K. Benesch, who oversees the Coun-
try Studies-Area Handbook Program for the Department of the
Army. In addition, the authors appreciate the advice and guidance
of Sandra W. Meditz, Federal Research Division coordinator of the
handbook series. Special thanks also go to Marilyn L. Majeska, who
managed editing and production, assisted by Andrea T. Merrill; to
Kimberly Lord, who designed the book cover; to Carlyn Dawn
Anderson, who designed the illustrations on the title page of each
chapter; to David P. Cabitto, who provided graphics support and,
together with Harriett R. Blood and the firm of Greenhorne and
O'Mara, prepared maps; and to Tim Merrill, who compiled geo-
graphic data. The following individuals are gratefully acknowledged
as well: Sharon Costello, who edited the chapters, and Barbara Edg-
erton and Izella Watson, who did the word processing. Cissie Coy
performed the final prepublication editorial review; Joan C. Cook
compiled the index; and Linda Peterson of the Printing and Process-
ing Section, Library of Congress, prepared the camera-ready copt,
under the supervision of Peggy Pixley.
v
Contents
Page
Foreword..................1
Acknowledgments........................
Preface................................ xi
Country Profile.......................... x
Introduction............................ xi
Chapter 1. Historical Setting ... a*' 1C
Charles Sudtic
PRE-SLAV HISTORY ................................. 4
HISTORIES OF THE YUGOSLAV PEOPLES
TO WORLD WAR 1.................6
The Slovenes .................................. 7
The Croats and Their Territories..................10
The Serbs and Serbia, Vojvodina, and Montenegro . .16
Bosnia and Hercegovina.........................22
Macedonia ................................... 25
THE BALKAN WARS, WORLD WAR I, AND THE
FORMATION OF YUGOSLAVIA, 1912-18 .............. 26
The Balkan Wars and World War I ................ 27
Formation of the South Slav State..................28
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia ...................... 29
Political Life in the 1920s........................31
Economic Life and Foreign Policy in the 1920s ... 32
The Royal Dictatorship .......................... 33
The Regency .................................. 35
The Sporazum, Tripartite Pact, and Outbreak
of World War II.............................36
YUGOSLAVIA IN WORLD WAR 11, 1941-45..............37
Partition and Terror............................37
The Resistance Movement........................39
POSTWAR YUGOSLAVIA ............................. 42
Communist Takeover and Consolidation ............. 42
The Yugoslav-Soviet Rift.........................45
Introduction of Socialist Self-Management............47
Nonalignment and Yugoslav-Soviet Rapprochement . .49
Reforms of the 1960s ............................ 50
vii
Unrest in Croatia and Its Consequences
in the 1970s ................................. 53
The 1974 Constitution ........................... 54
Chapter 2. The Society and Its Environment ..... 59
Charles Sudetic
GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION.....................63
Topography .................................. 63
Drainage Systems..............................64
Climate......................................64
Pollution.....................................67
Population .................................... 67
YUGOSLAVIA'S PEOPLES............................69
Ethnographic History...........................69
Ethnic Composition ............................. 70
Languages .................................... 72
The Yugoslav Nations ........................... 73
SOCIAL GROUPS .................................... 89
The Peasantry ................................. 89
The Workers..................................92
The Political Elite and Intellectuals ................. 94
The Family...................................97
URBANIZATION AND HOUSING..................... 102
Housing ..................................... 102
Urban Problems...............................104
Guest Workers ................................ 104
RELIGION ......................................... 106
Demography and Distribution .................... 107
Eastern Orthodoxy.............................108
Roman Catholicism ............................ 110
Islam....................................... 112
Other Faiths................................. 113
EDUCATION ....................................... 113
History of Yugoslav Education....................113
Primary Schools...............................114
Secondary Education ........................... 115
Higher Education..............................116
HEALTH CARE AND SOCIAL WELFARE...............116
Disease and Mortality.......................... 116
Development of the Health Care System ............ 116
The Contemporary Health and Welfare Systems .... 117
viii
Chapter 3. The Economy ........................ 121
Malinda K. Goodrich
ECONOMIC HISTORY ............................. 124
World War II and Recovery .................... 124
Application of Stalinist Economics ................ 124
The First Five-Year Plan ....................... 125
Launching Socialist Self-Management ............. 127
The "Perspective" Five-Year Plan ............... 127
Overhaul in the 1960s ......................... 128
The Economic Reform of 1965 .................. 129
Adjustments in the 1970s ...................... 130
THE ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT MECHANISM ...... 131
Socialist Self-Management ...................... 131
Capital Ownership and the Market ............... 132
Planning and Pricing .......................... 134
Trade U nions ............................... 135
Government Revenue and Spending .............. 136
Banking .................................... 136
STRUCTURE OF THE ECONOMY ................... 138
Labor and Unemployment ..................... 138
Industry .................................... 139
Agriculture ................................. 144
Energy and Mineral Resources .................. 146
Transportation and Telecommunications ........... 150
FOREIGN TRADE ................................. 152
Historical Background ......................... 152
Exports and Imports .......................... 156
Trading Partners ............................. 157
Guest Workers and Tourism .................... 160
Foreign Exchange ............................ 162
MANAGING THE CRISIS OF THE 1980s .............. 163
Inflation and Foreign Debt ..................... 163
Living Standards ............................. 164
Regional Disparities .......................... 164
THE REFORMS OF 1990 ............................ 165
Chapter 4. Government and Politics ............. 169
Glenn E. Curtis
POLITICAL EVOLUTION AFTER 1945 ................ 172
Breaking with the Soviet Union ................. 173
The 1963 Constitution ......................... 174
Post-Rankovi6 Diversification ................... 175
ix
Political Innovation and the 1974 Constitution ...... 176
The Early Post-Tito Years ..................... 180
Reform in the 1980s .......................... 180
The Leadership Crisis ......................... 183
GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE ....................... 184
Federal Assembly ............................ 184
Federal Executive Council ...................... 185
State Presidency ............................. 187
Court System ............................... 189
Local Government and the Communes ............ 190
NONGOVERNMENTAL POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS ... 192
League of Communists of Yugoslavia ............. 192
Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia ... 197
Trade Unions ............................... 198
Youth League of Yugoslavia .................... 199
Veterans' Association ......................... 199
REGIONAL POLITICAL ISSUES ..................... 200
Slovenia .................................... 200
Serbia ..................................... 202
Ko sovo .................................... 204
V ojvodina .................................. 206
C roatia .................................... 206
M ontenegro ................................. 208
Bosnia and Hercegovina ....................... 209
M acedonia .................................. 210
THE PUBLIC AND POLITICAL DECISION MAKING ... 211
Djilas, Praxis, and Intellectual Repression ......... 211
Intellectual Opposition Groups .................. 212
The M edia ................................. 213
C ensorship .................................. 214
FOREIGN POLICY ................................. 215
The Government Foreign Policy Mechanism ....... 216
Nonalignment ............................... 216
The Soviet Union ............................ 218
The United States ............................ 218
European Neighbors .......................... 219
The Middle East and Western Europe ............ 220
THE POLITICAL AGENDA FOR THE 1990s ........... 221
Chapter 5. National Security .................... 225
Karl Wheeler Soper
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARMED FORCES ........... 228
Early Development ........................... 228
x
W orld W ar II ............................... 229
Postwar Development ......................... 231
NATIONAL DEFENSE .............................. 233
Threat Perception ............................ 233
M ilitary Doctrine ............................ 235
Strategy and Tactics .......................... 236
DEFENSE ORGANIZATION ......................... 237
Government Organization for Defense ............ 238
The Military and the Party ..................... 241
Armed Services .............................. 243
Territorial Defense Forces ...................... 250
MILITARY MANPOWER ........................... 253
The Military and Society ...................... 253
Recruitment and Service Obligations ............. 257
Military Training and Education ................ 259
Mi litary Life ................................ 261
Ranks, Insignia, and Uniforms .................. 262
DEFENSE AND THE NATIONAL ECONOMY .......... 265
M ilitary Budget .............................. 266
Arms Procurement ........................... 267
FOREIGN MILITARY RELATIONS ................... 272
W arship Visits ............................... 273
Arm s Sales ................................. 273
M ilitary Exchanges ........................... 274
INTERNAL SECURITY ............................. 275
D issidence .................................. 276
Courts, Detention, and Punishment .............. 278
Internal Security Forces ........................ 280
Organization for Internal Security ................ 282
The Military in Domestic Peacekeeping ........... 283
Appendix. Tables ................................. 287
Bibliography ..................................... 303
G lossary ......................................... 321
Ind ex ............................................ 325
List of Figures
I Administrative Divisions of Yugoslavia, 1990 ........... xxii
2 Military Frontier Province Between the Habsburg
and Ottoman Empires, ca. 1600-1800 .............. 14
3 Expansion of Serbia, 1804-1913 ..................... 20
4 South Slav Territories at Formation of Yugoslav State,
1918-19 ...................................... 30
xi