Paediatric Exercise Science and Medicine PDF
Preview Paediatric Exercise Science and Medicine
Paediatric Exercise Science and Medicine Also published by Oxford University Press Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science and Medicine Michael Kent Oxford Handbook of Sport and Exercise Medicine Domhnall MacAuley Forthcoming titles by Oxford University Press Sports Injuries 2e Hutson and Speed Paediatric Exercise Science and Medicine Edited by Neil Armstrong Professor of Paediatric Physiology, Vice-President and Deputy Vice-Chancellor, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom. and Willem van Mechelen Professor of Occupational and Sports Medicine, Co-Director of EMGO Institute and Head of the Department of Public and Occupational Health, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 1 1 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offi ces in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan South Korea Poland Portugal Singapore Switzerland Th ailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Oxford University Press, 2008 Th e moral rights of the authors have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India Printed in China on acid-free paper by Asia Pacifi c Off set ISBN 978–0–19–923248–2 (Pbk.: alk paper) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Whilst every eff ort has been made to ensure that the contents of this book are as complete, accurate and-up-to-date as possible at the date of writing, Oxford University Press is not able to give any guarantee or assurance that such is the case. Readers are urged to take appropriately qualifi ed medical advice in all cases. Th e information in this book is intended to be useful to the general reader, but should not be used as a means of self-diagnosis or for the prescription of medication. Contents Preface xiii Anthropometry in assessing size and proportional characteristics 23 List of contributors xv Estimating physique by somatotyping 26 Body composition assessment: models, PART I methodological aspects, and techniques 27 Assessment in Paediatric Assessing biological maturity 29 Exercise Science Summary 32 References 33 1 Ethics in paediatric research: principles and processes 3 4 Muscle strength 38 Edward M. Winter and Mark Cobb Nathalie J. Farpour-Lambert and Cameron J.R. Blimkie Introduction 3 Principles 3 Introduction 38 Processes 8 Terminology 38 Summary 11 Skeletal muscle active states 39 References 11 Determinants of a strength assessment method 42 Electrically evoked muscle strength testing 48 2 Interpreting exercise performance Interpretative considerations 50 data in relation to body size 13 Summary 51 Joanne R. Welsman and Neil Armstrong References 51 Introduction 13 5 Maximal intensity exercise 55 Scaling for body size differences Neil Armstrong, Joanne R. Welsman, in cross-sectional data sets 13 and Craig A. Williams Scaling for body-size differences in longitudinal data sets 17 Introduction 55 Summary 19 Maximal intensity exercise tests 55 References 19 Jump tests 56 Monoarticular force–velocity tests 56 3 Anthropometry, physique, body composition and maturity 23 Cycle tests 57 Running tests 61 Albrecht L. Claessens, Gaston Beunen, and Robert M. Malina Summary 63 References 64 Introduction 23 vi Contents 6 Pulmonary function 67 Physical activity domains 130 Patricia A. Nixon How active are young people? 130 Validity and reliability of physical activity Introduction 67 assessment methods 131 Assessment of pulmonary function at rest 67 Validation of physical activity instruments 132 Assessment of pulmonary function during exercise 69 Methods of physical activity assessment 132 Interpretation of pulmonary exercise testing 73 Data analysis and interpretation 135 Summary 74 Summary 140 References 74 References 140 7 Cardiovascular function 77 11 Effort perception 145 Darren E.R. Warburton, Lindsay Nettlefold, Kevin L. Lamb, Gaynor Parfi tt, and Roger G. Eston K. Ashlee McGuire, and Shannon S.D. Bredin Introduction 145 Introduction 77 Application and description of traditional Cardiac output 77 RPE scales 145 Cardiovascular regulation 83 Estimation and production of effort 145 Peripheral blood fl ow 86 The study of perceived exertion in children: Cardiovascular/vascular health 87 A historical perspective 146 Conclusions 90 The development of child-specifi c rating scales 146 Summary 90 Anchoring effort perceptions 151 References 90 Validity of effort perception: Problems with comparing values from estimation and 8 Aerobic fitness 97 production paradigms during continuous Neil Armstrong and Joanne R. Welsman and intermittent procedures 151 Introduction 97 Concluding comments 152 Maximal or peak oxygen uptake ? 97 Summary 152 Peak oxygen uptake 98 References 152 Blood lactate 102 Blood lactate measures of performance 104 PART II Blood lactate responses to exercise and age 104 Developmental Aspects of Blood lactate responses to exercise and maturation 105 Paediatric Exercise Science Summary 105 References 105 12 Growth and maturation 157 Adam D.G. Baxter-Jones 9 Field tests of fitness 109 Grant R. Tomkinson and Timothy S. Olds Introduction 157 The curve of growth 158 Introduction 109 Types of growth data 159 Aerobic fi eld tests 109 Growth in Stature 159 Anaerobic fi eld tests 112 Patterns of growth 160 Recommendations 121 Growth in body mass 160 Secular changes in aerobic and anaerobic performance 121 Development of shape 161 Summary 124 Adolescence and puberty 162 References 124 Regulation of growth and maturation 162 Biological maturity 164 10 Physical activity 129 Relationship of maturity to body size and function 166 Kirsten Corder and Ulf Ekelund General conclusion 167 Introduction 129 Summary 167 Physical activity defi nitions 129 References 167 Contents vii 13 Developmental biodynamics: The 16 Exercise metabolism 213 development of coordination 169 Neil Armstrong and Samantha G. Fawkner James Watkins Introduction 213 Introduction 169 Maximal (or peak) anaerobic and Development of coordination and control 170 aerobic performance 213 Kinematics of coordination 172 Muscle biopsy studies 214 Kinetics of coordination 172 Substrate utilization 217 Dynamical systems approach to the Oxygen uptake kinetics 218 development of coordination 176 Magnetic resonance spectroscopy 219 Dynamic resources 181 Conclusion 222 A dynamical systems perspective of walking Summary 223 in children with cerebral palsy 182 References 223 Summary 183 17 Maximal intensity exercise 227 References 183 Craig A. Williams 14 Motor development 188 Introduction 227 David A. Sugden and Helen C. Soucie Defi nition of maximal intensity exercise 227 Introduction 188 Maximal intensity exercise and age 228 Description of change 188 Maximal intensity exercise and sex 230 Explanation of change 189 Maximal intensity exercise and maturation 231 Infant development and early childhood 191 Determinants of maximal intensity exercise 233 Early childhood motor development 193 Recent investigations of maximal intensity exercise 236 Developmental coordination disorder 194 Fatigue 236 Summary 195 Repeated-sprint ability tests 237 References 195 Summary 238 References 239 15 Muscle strength 199 Mark B.A. De Ste Croix 18 Pulmonary function 243 Samantha G. Fawkner Introduction 199 Muscle growth 199 Introduction 243 Determining muscle size—measurement Structure and mechanics 243 techniques 200 Resting values 244 Age- and sex-associated development Ventilatory response to exercise 245 in muscle cross-sectional area 201 Ventilation kinetics 246 Defi ning muscle strength 201 Maximum ventilation 248 Eccentric testing 202 Limitations to maximal ventilation 249 Eccentric/concentric ratio and knee Training adaptations 250 stability 202 Summary 251 Interpretation of strength data 203 References 252 Development of muscle strength: Age- and sex-associated changes 203 19 Cardiovascular function 255 Determinants of strength development 205 Thomas W. Rowland Conclusions 209 Introduction 255 Future directions 209 Progressive exhaustive exercise 255 Summary 209 Sustained constant-load exercise References 210 (cardiovascular drift) 263 viii Contents Isometric exercise 264 Oxygen uptake kinetics, sex differences, and the Summary 265 relationship with peak oxygen uptake 304 References 265 Summary 305 References 305 20 Aerobic fitness 269 23 Temperature regulation 309 Neil Armstrong, Alison M. McManus, and Joanne R. Welsman Bareket Falk and Raffy Dotan Introduction 269 Introduction 309 Peak oxygen uptake 269 Physical and physiological Components of peak oxygen uptake 269 child–adult differences 309 Peak oxygen uptake and age 271 The physiological response to thermal stress 312 Peak oxygen uptake and growth 273 Adaptation to thermal stress 319 Peak oxygen uptake and maturation 2575 Summary 321 Peak oxygen uptake and sex 276 References 321 Secular trends in peak oxygen uptake 277 Summary 278 PART III References 278 Physical Activity, Physical 21 Locomotor economy 283 Fitness and Health Don W. Morgan 24 Physical activity, physical fitness, and Introduction 283 health: current concepts 327 Economy differences among children, Sean Cumming and Chris Riddoch adolescents, and adults 283 Introduction 327 Scaling of locomotor economy 286 Defi ning physical activity and physical fi tness 328 Inter- and intraindividual variability in locomotor economy 286 Activity and health in adults 329 Sex differences in locomotor economy 287 Physical activity and health in children 330 Distance-running performance and Summary 334 running economy 288 References 335 Malleability of locomotor economy: Effects 25 Physical activity, physical fitness, of instruction and training 288 and cardiovascular health 339 Physical growth and locomotor economy 289 Jos Twisk and Isabel Ferreira Prediction of locomotor economy 289 Obesity and locomotor economy 290 Introduction 339 Basic gait patterns and locomotor economy 290 Traditional cardiovascular disease risk factors 339 Locomotor economy in youth with physical New cardiovascular risk factors 343 disabilities 290 New developments 345 Future directions 291 General comments 346 Summary 291 Summary 348 References 292 References 348 22 Oxygen uptake kinetics 297 26 Gene–physical activity interactions and their role in determining cardiovascular Samantha G. Fawkner and Neil Armstrong and metabolic health 353 Introduction 297 Paul W. Franks and Helen C. Looker Overview of the oxygen uptake kinetic response to exercise 297 Introduction 353 Quantifying the oxygen uptake kinetic response 298 Genetics of common disease— The three phases of the oxygen uptake kinetic background and principles 354 response 300 The paradox of genetically determined disease in childhood 356 Contents ix Genetic determinants of physical activity Summary 414 and aerobic fi tness 358 References 415 Biological and anthropometric markers of cardiovascular and metabolic risk during childhood 359 PART IV The future of gene–lifestyle interaction studies in children 360 Chronic Health Conditions Summary 361 and Physical Activity References 361 31 Exercise testing in congenital 27 Physical activity, physical fitness, heart disease 421 and bone health 365 Tony Reybrouck and Marc Gewillig Han C.G. Kemper Introduction 421 Introduction 365 Review of commonly used parameters to Growth of bone 365 assess exercise performance and aerobic exercise Methods of measurements of bone mass 366 function in the paediatric age group 421 Assessment of habitual level of physical Mechanisms of bone formation 367 activity in patients with congenital Natural course of bone mass development 368 heart disease 422 Effects of physical activity and physical Cardiorespiratory response to exercise in fi tness on bone mass 370 specifi c congenital heart defects 423 Summary 372 Natural evolution of aerobic exercise performance References 372 and daily level of physical activity in patients 28 Physical activity, physical fitness, and social, with congenital heart disease 426 psychological and emotional health 375 Exercise recommendations and rehabilitation of patients with congenital heart disease 426 Julie C. Garza, Nancy G. Murray, Shreela Sharma, Kelli L. Drenner, Susan R.Tortolero, and Wendell C. Taylor Summary 428 References 429 Introduction 375 Self-perceptions 375 32 Exercise, physical activity, and asthma 431 Psychosocial and academic functioning 389 Helge Hebestreit Psychological symptoms and negative effect 390 Introduction 431 Risk behaviours 391 Exercise-induced asthma 431 Summary and future directions 393 Pathophysiology of exercise-induced References 393 bronchial constriction 431 29 Sport, physical activity, and other Late response 432 health behaviours 397 Refractory period 432 Stewart G. Trost Diagnosing exercise-induced asthma 432 Physical activity and exercise capacity of children Introduction 397 and adolescents with asthma or Method 397 exercise-induced asthma 432 Health behaviours 397 Exercise-related benefi ts to children with asthma 432 Summary 405 Can physical training cause asthma? 433 References 405 Exercise testing in children with asthma or suspected exercise-induced 30 Systematic promotion of physical activity 409 asthma 433 Stef P. J. Kremers, Herman Schaalma, Ree M. Meertens, Prevention of exercise-induced asthma Willem van Mechelen, and Gerjo J. Kok and exercise counselling 435 Introduction 409 Concluding remarks 436 Planned health promotion 409 Summary 436 Health promotion and physical activity 410 References 436
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