ebook img

Oxidative Ageing of Polymers PDF

365 Pages·2012·10.772 MB·English
Save to my drive
Quick download
Download
Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.

Preview Oxidative Ageing of Polymers

Oxidative Ageing ofPolymers Oxidative Ageing of Polymers Jacques Verdu Firstpublished2012inGreatBritainandtheUnitedStatesbyISTELtdandJohnWiley&Sons,Inc. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permittedundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,thispublicationmayonlybereproduced, storedortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withthepriorpermissioninwritingofthepublishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentionedaddress: ISTELtd JohnWiley&Sons,Inc. 27-37StGeorge’sRoad 111RiverStreet LondonSW194EU Hoboken,NJ07030 UK USA www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com ©ISTELtd2012 The rights of Jacques Verdu to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Verdu,Jacques. Oxydativeageingofpolymers/JacquesVerdu. p.cm. Summary:"Thisbookaimstorehabilitatekineticmodelinginthedomainofpolymerageing,whereit hasbeenalmostabandonedbytheresearchcommunity.Kineticmodelingisakeystepforlifetime prediction,acrucialprobleminmanyindustrialdomainsinwhichneedscannotbesatisfiedbythe commonempiricalmethods.Thisbookproposesarenewedapproachoflifetimepredictioninpolymer oxidativeageing.Thisapproachisbasedonkineticmodelsbuiltfromrelativelysimplemechanistic schemesbutintegratingphysicalprocesses(oxygendiffusionandstabilizertransport),anduseproperty (forinstancemechanicalfailure)changes.Animportantchapterisdedicatedtoradiation-induced oxidationanditsmostimportantapplications:radiochemicalageingatlowdoseratesandphoto-chemical ageingundersolarradiation.Thereisalsoachapterdevotedtotheproblemofageingundercoupled oxidationandmechanicalloading"--Providedbypublisher. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-1-84821-336-4(hardback) 1. Polymers--Deterioration--Mathematicalmodels.2. Oxidation. I.Title. QD381.9.M3V472012 547'.7--dc23 2011052450 BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData ACIPrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-1-84821-336-4 PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyCPIGroup(UK)Ltd.,Croydon,SurreyCR04YY Table of Contents Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi GeneralIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Chapter1.MethodologicalAspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1.Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2.Empiricalandsemi-empiricalmodels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.2.1.TheArrheniusmodel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1.2.2.Theisodosemodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.2.3.Theoverallkineticmodel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2.4.Thecorrelationmethod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.2.5.Variousmathematical“laws”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.2.6.Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3.Towardsanon-empiricalmethodoflifetimeprediction . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.1.Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.2.Themultiscalemodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.3.3.Anewphilosophyofageing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4.Argumentsagainstkineticmodeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.4.1.Overcomplexity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.4.2.Heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.4.3.Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.5.Principlesofmodelelaboration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Chapter2.AspectsCommontoallOxidationProcesses . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1.Oxidation:aradicalchainmechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1.1.Radicalnature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1.2.Chainreaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.2.Propagation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 vi OxidativeAgeingofPolymers 2.2.1.Propagationbyadditiontodoublebonds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.2.2.Propagationbyhydrogenabstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.2.3.PropagationbyP°radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.3.Termination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.3.1.TheP°+P°termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.3.2.TheP°+POO°termination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.3.3.ThePOO°+POO°termination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.4.Initiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.4.1.Polymerdecomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.4.2.Decompositionofoxidationproducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.5.Thermodynamicaspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.5.1.Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.5.2.Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.5.3.Termination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Chapter3.BasicKineticSchemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.1.Simplifyinghypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.1.1.HypothesisU:unicityofthereactivesite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3.1.2.HypothesisE:oxygenexcess. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.1.3.HypothesisA:constantinitiationrate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.1.4.HypothesisS:stationarystate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.1.5.HypothesisC:constantsubstrateconcentration . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.1.6.HypothesisL:longkineticchain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.1.7.HypothesisT:relationbetweentheterminationrateconstants . . . 49 3.1.8.HypothesisH:homogeneityofreaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.1.9.HypothesisB:“closedloop”scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.2.TheASECscheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.2.1.TowardsanAECscheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.3.TheASCTLscheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.4.TheBESCscheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.4.1.CharacteristicscommontoallBESCschemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.4.2.Unimoleculardecompositionofhydroperoxides . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.4.3.Bimoleculardecompositionofhydroperoxides . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.5.TheBASCscheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.5.1.TheunimolecularBASCmodel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.5.2.AnotherapproachtotheBASCschemes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.5.3.Howarewetorecognizethemechanisms?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.6.Otherschemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.6.1.Consumptionofthesubstrate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.6.2.Unsaturatedsubstrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 3.6.3.Intramolecularpropagationinpolypropylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.6.4.Co-oxidation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 TableofContents vii 3.7.Generalproblemsofkineticanalysisofpolymeroxidation. Theoutlinesofanewapproach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 3.7.1.Near-universalityofthekineticbehavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 3.7.2.Rateconstants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 3.7.3.Asystematicapproach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Chapter4.OxidationandOxygenDiffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.1.Propertiesofoxygentransportinpolymers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.1.1.Solubility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 4.1.2.Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.2.Thereaction/diffusionequation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.2.1.Conventionalapproach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.2.2.Numericalresolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4.2.3.Thicknessoftheoxidizedlayer.Shapeandevolution oftheprofile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Chapter5.Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.1.Principlesofstabilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.1.1.Actionon[O ]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 2 5.1.2.Actiononradiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.1.3.Captureordestructionofradicalsandhydroperoxides. . . . . . . . 113 5.2.Actiononhydroperoxidedecomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 5.2.1.Hydroperoxidedecomposers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 5.2.2.Metaldeactivators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 5.3.StabilizationbycaptureofP°radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 5.3.1.Carbonblack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 5.3.2.Nitroxideradicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 5.4.StabilizationbycaptureofPOO°radicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.4.1.General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 5.4.2.POO°radicalscavengers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 5.5.SynergisticmixturesHD+CBA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 5.6.Polyfunctionalstabilizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 5.7.Hinderedamines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.7.1.Mechanisticaspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.7.2.Kineticaspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 5.8.Otherstabilizingmechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5.9.Physicalaspectsofstabilizationbyadditives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5.9.1.Solubility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 5.9.2.Volatility,evaporation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 5.9.3.Diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 5.9.4.Evaporation-diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 5.9.5.Demixingandotherphenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 viii OxidativeAgeingofPolymers Chapter6.MolecularMobilityandReactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.1.Theissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.2.Thechemicalway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 6.2.1.Exampleofapplication:oxidationofPEatlowtemperature . . . . 151 6.3.Thephysicalway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 6.4.Controlbydiffusionofmacromolecularreactive speciesandheterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 6.5.Theparadoxofthermostabilityinglassypolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Chapter7.StructuralChangesCausedbyOxidation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 7.1.Onthemolecularscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 7.1.1.Absorbedoxygen,oxygenatedgroups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 7.1.2.Chemiluminescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 7.1.3.Volatileoxidationproducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 7.1.4.Howarewetoincludetheformationoftheoxidation productsinthekineticmodel? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 7.2.Onthemacromolecularscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 7.2.1.Scissionsinlinearpolymers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 7.2.2.Scissionsinthree-dimensionalpolymers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 7.2.3.Simultaneouscrosslinkingandscissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 7.3.Onthemorphologicalscale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 7.3.1.Amorphouspolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 7.3.2.Immisciblemixturesofamorphouspolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 7.3.3.Semi-crystallinepolymerswithaglassyamorphousmatrix. . . . . 193 7.3.4.Semi-crystallinepolymerswitharubberyamorphousphase . . . . 194 Chapter8.EffectsofOxidationonPhysicalandMechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 8.1.Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 8.2.Weightchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 8.2.1.Particularcases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 8.3.Changesindensityandvolume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 8.4.Opticalproperties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 8.4.1.Changesintherefractiveindex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 8.4.2.Coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 8.4.3.Surfacestate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 8.4.4.Quantifyingtheeffectsofoxidationontheopticalproperties. . . . 215 8.5.Electricalproperties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 8.5.1.Dielectricalspectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 8.5.2.Dielectricfracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 8.6.Glasstransitionandmelting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 TableofContents ix 8.6.1.Glasstransitiontemperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 8.6.2.Meltingpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 8.7.Mechanicalpropertiesatlowstrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 8.7.1.Reminders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 8.7.2.Elastomers,rubberyphases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 8.7.3.Glassyamorphousphases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 8.7.4.Semi-crystallinepolymers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 8.8.Fracturepropertiesinthecaseofhomogeneousdegradation. . . . . . . 230 8.8.1.Glassyandsemi-crystallineamorphouslinearpolymers withaglassyamorphousphaseundergoingdegradation. . . . . . . . . . . 230 8.8.2.Semi-crystallinepolymerswitharubberyamorphousphase undergoingdegradation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 8.8.3.Elastomersundergoingdegradation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 8.8.4.Thermosetmaterialsundergoingdegradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 8.8.5.Effectsofsuperficialoxidationonfracturebehavior. . . . . . . . . 239 8.9.Fracturepropertiesinthecaseofhomogeneouscrosslinking . . . . . . 243 8.9.1.Glassyamorphouspolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 8.9.2.Elastomers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Chapter9.Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 9.1.Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 9.2.“Spontaneous”cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 9.3.Couplingbetweencrackingandoxidation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 9.4.Lifetimeunderstaticstrainandoxidation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 9.4.1.Mechano-chemicalinitiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 9.4.2.Effectofoxidationonthefracturekinetics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 9.5.Physicalageingandoxidation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 9.6.Oxidationduringprocessing–degradationandrecycling . . . . . . . . 266 9.6.1.Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 9.6.2.Thermosetmaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Chapter10.OxidationUnderIrradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 10.1.Definitions.Generalaspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 10.1.1.Characteristicsofradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 10.1.2.Differencebetweenphotochemical andradiochemicalinitiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 10.1.3.Quantitiescharacterizingtheradiationandinteraction betweenthematterandtheradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 10.1.4.Quantitiescharacterizingthereaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 10.2.Radiochemicalinitiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 10.3.Aperculiarityofradiochemicalageing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 10.3.1.Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 x OxidativeAgeingofPolymers 10.4.Photochemicalinitiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 10.4.1.Initiationbyphotolysisofhydroperoxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 10.4.2.“Accelerationfactor”,linkedtotheintensity. . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 10.4.3.Initiationbythermalandphotochemicaldecomposition ofPOOHs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 10.4.4.Initiationinanabsorbentenvironment,thickness ofthephoto-oxidizedlayer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 10.4.5.Initiationbyotherprocesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 10.4.6.Polychromaticlightsources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 10.5.Photostabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 10.5.1.Stabilizationbyscreeneffect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 10.6.Ageingundernaturalsunlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 10.6.1.Solarradiationattheearth’ssurface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 10.6.2.Kineticsofpolymerphoto-ageing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 10.6.3.Conclusiononphotochemicalageingundernatural solarradiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Appendix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Acknowledgements I have dedicated a considerable portion of my professional life to studying the ageing of polymers. This “quest” has afforded me the opportunity to collaborate on this topic with a great many people (teaching researchers, postdoctoral students, thesiscandidates,engineeringstudents,etc.)–itwouldbeanear-impossibletaskto give an exhaustive list of these people here, but they figure in the list of bibliographicalreferences.Iwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetothem. The team’s academic production has taken off over the last ten years, thanks to three young researchers: Xavier Colin, Bruno Fayolle and Emmanuel Richaud, whose skill and dynamism, now internationally recognized, will help to ensure continuing progress in this field of research. I am extremely grateful to them, and wishthemabrilliantcareer. Ludmila Audouin has been a valuable part of the team, through the trials and tribulations, for over 30 years. She played a crucial role, offering her pragmatism, her extensive knowledge of analytical chemistry, her experimental ability and her capacity to moderate my sometimes over-zealous enthusiasm. I wish to express my deepgratitudetoher;longmayourfruitfulfriendshiplast. By way of their painstaking proofreading, Ludmila Audouin, Pierre Gilormini and Serge Verdu have helped eliminate many errors which were due to my inattentionfromthisbook.Heartfeltthanksgotoallthree.

See more

The list of books you might like

Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.