Oxidant Air Pollution Impacts in the Montane Forests of Southern California: A Case Study of the San Bernardino Mountains PDF
Preview Oxidant Air Pollution Impacts in the Montane Forests of Southern California: A Case Study of the San Bernardino Mountains
Ecological Studies, Vol. 134 Analysis and Synthesis Edited by M.M. Caldwell, Logan, USA G. Heldmaier, Marburg, Germany O.L. Lange, Würzburg, Germany H. A. Mooney, Stanford, USA E.-D. Schulze, Jena, Germany U. Sommer, Kiel, Germany Ecological Studies Volumes published since 1992 are listed at the end of this book. Springer Science+Business Media, LLC Paul R. Miller Joe R. McBride Editors Oxidant Air Pollution Impacts in the Montane Forests of Southern California A Case Study of the San Bernardino Mountains Foreword by O. Clifton Taylor With 102 illustrations, 6 in color Springer Paul R. Miller Joe R. McBride USDA Forest Service Department of Environmental Pacific Southwest Station Science, Policy, and Management Riverside, CA 92507 University of California USA Berkeley, CA 94720 USA Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Oxidant air pollution impacts in the montane forests of Southern California: a case study of the San Bernardino Mountains/[edited by] Paul Miller, Joe R. McBride. p. cm. — (Ecological studies; 134) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4612-7143-7 ISBN 978-1-4612-1436-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4612-1436-6 I. Trees—Effect of air pollution on—California—San Bernardino Mountains Region—Case studies. 2. Trees—Wounds and injuries— California—San Bernardino Mountain Region—Case studies. 3. Conifers—Effect of air pollution on—California—San Bernardino Mountains Region—Case studies. 4. Conifers—Wounds and injuries— California—San Bernardino Mountain Region—Case studies. 5. Forest ecology—California—San Bernardino Mountains Region—Case studies. I. Miller, Paul R., 1905- . II. McBride, Joe. III. Series: Ecological studies: v. 134. SB745.095 1998 577.377—DC21 98-11498 Printed on acid-free paper. © 1999 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. in 1999 All rights reserved. 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Typeset by Princeton Editorial Associates, Inc., Roosevelt, NJ, and Scottsdale, AZ. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 21 ISSN 0070-8356 SPIN 10670166 Foreword The geographical location of the San Bernardino Mountains and the regional climate combine to create a potential for air pollution injury to midelevation conifer forests. The mountains are located downwind from one of the largest metropolitan regions in the United States, where accumulation of photochemical oxidant air pollution is enabled by the marine inversion layer that has a persistent influence during the summer months. The mixed conifer forest's most important species, ponderosa pine, was the first to show injury symptoms on needles in the mid-1950s. The condition was tenned x-disease because the cause was unknown. Later, the term chlorotic decline ofp onderosa pine was used interchangeably. At about the same time, experiments were being performed on citrus and grapes located in the Upland-Ontario area just a few miles upwind and in the urbanized valley west (upwind) of the San Bernardino Mountains. Whole trees or yines were enclosed in greenhouses and provided with carbon-filtered air or smoggy ambient air. The key results of this work included the recognition that leaf injury and declining yield of fruit were the result of exposure to smoggy air or conversely that carbon-filtered air protected these crops against injury and loss of yield. Furthennore, the term oxidant stipple ofg rape, due primarily to ozone. was used to describe the typical field symptoms on grape leaves. In the meantime, the possible role of fluoride or sulfur pollutants from a nearby steel plant in causing injury to cultivated orchards, vineyards, and native vegeta tion, particularly ponderosa pine, was being investigated. These pollutants were v vi Foreword dismissed as major causal agents. Observations of ornamental pine species in urban locations identified the same kind of chlorotic mottle symptoms on needles as were observed on native ponderosa pines. Several fumigation experiments with ponderosa pine seedlings or branches offield trees culminated as early as 1963 in publications that described how ozone could induce chlorotic mottle symptoms on ponderosa pine. Eventually, injury attributable to ozone was described on other native conifers, including Jeffrey pine, black oak, and white fir. Symptoms were harder to detect, or absent, on incense cedar, coulter pine, sugar pine, and several evergreen oaks. More attention was drawn to ponderosa pine in the early 1970s because weak ened trees were being killed by pine bark beetles, and sanitation-salvage logging operations were used to remove weakened trees before infestation. At about this time, multidisciplinary studies began for the purpose of studying the broader implications of ozone injury to the mixed conifer forest type (see Introduction). A feature of this work, which remains important today, was the study of pollutant effects on a west-to-east gradient of decreasing pollutant exposure. In this volume, we draw on the individual experiences of about 30 scientists who have contributed to our collective knowledge of pollutant effects as a result of their research over a period of up to 30 to 35 years. The knowledge attained over the years has provided the first ecosystem-level interpretation of chronic ozone exposure effects on a forest ecosystem in the U.S. EPA Criteria Documents, used in support of the evaluation of National Air Qual ity Standards for ozone. The extension of these observations into the future is clearly an advantage because few forest ecosystems in the West have quality assured data sets with this length of record. These results could be integrated into broader programs such as the National Environmental Monitoring Initiative. Iron ically, the area has been regarded as somewhat ofa pariah because at the extreme it represents a higher level of ozone exposure than has been observed anywhere in the United States. This is correct; however, observations have always been made at points on a gradient of decreasing pollutant exposure. Injury levels from other forested regions, particularly the Sierra Nevada and other southern California mountain ranges, have been carefully compared with the entire gradient of exposure/injury in the San Bernardino Mountains, and greater meaning can be attached to these observations. In addition, an important cause of the air pollution in the San Bernardino Mountains is the area's proximity to heavily urbanized areas-a condition becoming increasingly important for other forested areas in California and the West. Air monitoring records for ozone from the South Coast Air Basin of California have shown steadily improving conditions. As reported in this volume, tree damage from ozone is also on the decline, but it has not reached levels below the threshold for chronic injury. At the same time, we have become aware of the increasing direct and indirect effects of nitrogen deposition in several fonns. We do not yet fully understand how "nitrogen saturation" and ozone may interact. In light of the population increases predicted for the future, it is uncertain if current Foreword VII pollution control measures will continue to be adequate. The forests of the San Bernardino Mountains will continue to be an important monitor of progress in the protection of our air environment. Riverside, California O. Clifton Taylor Acknowledgments A number of individuals are deserving of recognition because of their pioneering efforts during the earliest phases of work to investigate the cause of x-disease of ponderosa pine. These individuals include James Asher. Robert Bega. Eugene Cardiff. Fields Cobb. Donald Dahlsten. Tom Neff. Richard Parmeter. Jr .. B.L. Richards. and O. Clifton Taylor. During the first multidisciplinary study between 1974 and 1979. the research group was managed and guided by O. Clifton Taylor and Joe R. McBride. Co-investigators were Rod Arkely. Johan Brun. Fields Cobb. Donald Dahlsten. Robert L. James. Ronald N. Kickert. Richard Laven. Robert Luck. Clif Ohmart. D.L. Rowney. Marshall White. Wayne Wilcox. and others from the University of California. Berkeley. Ronald Kickert deserves particular recognition for his early application of simulation modeling techniques as a way of integrating EPA-sponsored research and for completing the organization of the computerized project database. culminating in about 1979. Throughout the past 30 years, we are grateful for the research support provided. at different times. by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. especially the Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory. the California Air Resources Board. Research Division. and appropriated funds of the USDA Forest Service. Pacific Southwest Station. We also appreciate the long-standing support of the Southern California Edison Company, especially for underwriting the major share of the publication cost of the color illustrations of this volume. Facilities and services were provided by the Statewide Air Pollution Research Center at the University of California. Riverside. 1\ x Acknowledgments We are particularly grateful to chapter reviewers, namely, Michael Barbour, John Battles, Allan Bell, Tom Cahill, John Carroll, Susan Conard, Paul Dunn, Mark Francis, Jay Gamer, Alan Goldstein, David Grahm, David Grantz, William Hogsett, Jud Isebrands, Theodor Leininger, Gong-yu Lin, Carol Lovatt, John McColl, William Maim, David Nowak, Dennis Ojima, David Olszyk, David Peterson, Gregory Reams, Roger Rosentreter, Phillip Rundel, Michael Ryan, Andrew Sanders, Richard Smith, Ann Sutherland, James Weber, and Arthur Winer. Riverside, California Paul R. Miller Berkeley, California Joe R. McBride Contents Foreword by o. Clifton Taylor V Acknowledgments IX Contributors xv Introduction P.R. Miller and 1.R. McBride Section 1. Description of Soils, Climate, Natural Resources, and Their Modification by Anthropogenic Influences t. Geography, Geology, Geomorphology, and Forest Soils 7 M.A. Poth and P. Wohlgemuth 2. Climatology 28 EM. Fujioka. 1.0. Roads. and S.-c. Chen 3. Vegetation, Fire Regimes, and Forest Dynamics 44 Richard A. Minnich Xl
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