Optics in Instruments

307 Pages·2011·14.029 MB·English

Optics in Instruments
Optics in Instruments

Edited by
Jean-Pierre Goure
First published 2011 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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The rights of Jean-Pierre Goure to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in
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____________________________________________________________________________________
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Optics in instruments / edited by Jean-Pierre Goure.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-84821-243-5
1. Optical instruments--Equipment and supplies. 2. Optoelectronic devices. 3. Optics. I. Goure, J.-P.
TS513.O584 2011
681'.4--dc22
2011013016

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-84821-243-5

Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne.
Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Chapter 1. Optics and Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Jean-Pierre GOURE
1.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. The media and optical communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3. Instruments for image capture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1. Classic image-capture instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2. Seeing even further. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.3. Seeing and measuring small objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.4. Improving the image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4. Optics in industrial processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.1. Metrology and production control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.2. Process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.3. Transformation of matter and shaping of materials. . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5. Optics and the medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6. Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7. The basic components of an instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 2. Formation of Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Henri GAGNAIRE
2.1. Introduction to optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2. Study of a centered system under Gaussian conditions . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.1. Main elements of a centered system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.2. Another form of the Lagrange-Helmoltz relation . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.3. Nodal points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
vi Optics in Instruments
2.2.4. Relation between the object and image space
focal lengths – optical power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.5. Cartesian and Newtonian equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.6. Longitudinal magnification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.7. Association of centered systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.8. Spherical refractive surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.9. Lens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3. General facts about optical instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.2. Size of the image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.3. Field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.4. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4. Geometric aberrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.4.2. Relation between wavefront aberrations and
transverse ray aberrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.3. The different types of aberration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.4.4. Seidel aberrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4.5. Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5. Chromatic aberrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5.2. Some definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.3. Apparent achromatism of doublets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Chapter 3. A Revision of Photometry and Radiometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Jean-Louis MEYZONNETTE
3.1. Introduction: the role of photometry and radiometry . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2. The main values of an optical radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.1. Flux (F). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.2. Solid angle (Ω) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.2.3. Intensity (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.4. Geometric extent (G). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.5. Radiance (L), exitance (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.6. Irradiance E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.7. Spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.8. Radiometric units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.3. Relations between radiometric parameters of a radiation. . . . . . . . . 73
3.3.1. General relations between geometric parameters . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3.2. Particular case of radiations with uniform radiance. . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3.3. Relations between energetic, photonic and visual parameters. . . . 80
Table of Contents vii
3.4. Some photometric properties of optical instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.4.1. Conservation of the geometric extent of a beam in an
optical medium and its transfer by an optical interface . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.4.2. Effects of refraction and reflection on radiance . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.4.3. A revision of instrumental optics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4.4. Photometry of an imaging system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4.5. Photometry of a “flux collector” instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Chapter 4. Light Sources for Optical Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Jean-Pierre GOURE and Isabelle VERRIER
4.1. Generalities about sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2. Emission light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2.1. Coherence of sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2.2. Sources characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.3. Different types of sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.3. Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.3.1. Incandescent lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.3.2. Halogen lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.3.3. Luminescent discharge sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4. Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.4.1. Definition and general characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.4.2. Gas lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.4.3. Solid-state lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.4.4. Optical parametric oscillators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.5. Fiber lasers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.5. Diodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.5.1. Light-emitting diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.5.2. Laser diodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.6. Remote sources and optical power supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Chapter 5. Colorimetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Eric DINET
5.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.2. Color and the observer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.2.1. The physical stimulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.2.2. The human visual system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.3. The foundation of colorimetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.3.1. Tristimulus values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.3.2. Chromaticity diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.4. Perception of color differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
viii Optics in Instruments
5.4.1. CIE 1976 L*u*v* color space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.4.2. CIE 1976 L*a*b* color space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.4.3. The problem of dark colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.5. Evaluation of color differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.5.1. Color deviation equations based on CIE 1976 color spaces. . . . . 160
5.5.2. Notes about CIE 1976 color spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.5.3. CMC (l:c) color formula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.5.4. CIE 1994 formula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.5.5. CIE DE2000 total color deviation formula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.6. Interpreting color deviations and color tolerancing . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.8. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Chapter 6. Bases for Image Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Michel JOURLIN
6.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.1.1. What is an image? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.1.2. Digitization of the spatial support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6.1.3. Digitization of gray scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.2. Classification of the image. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.2.1. Earliest tools for classification:
thresholding, multi-thresholding, contour detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.2.2. Perspectives towards more complex tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.3. Interpretation of binary images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.3.1. Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.3.2. Parameters of shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.3.3. Binary mathematical morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.3.4. Correction of a squared grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4. Gray level mathematical morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.5. An example of a non-linear model: the LIP
(Logarithmic Image Processing) model [JOU 01]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.5.1. Initial physical framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Chapter 7. Optics for Imaging: Definition,
Manufacturing, Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Gérard CORBASSON, Jacques DEBIZE and Thierry LEPINE
7.1. Lenses for photography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.1.1. Fixed focal length lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.1.2. Zoom lenses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.2. Lenses for cinema and television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Table of Contents ix
7.2.1. Cinema. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.2.2. Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.2.3. Manufacture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.3. Optics in astronomy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.4. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Chapter 8. Optics for Images at Low Light Levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Joël ROLLIN
8.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
8.1.1. Active imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.1.2. Low light level passive imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.1.3. Infrared thermography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
8.2. Light intensification devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.2.1. Different sensor technologies: light intensification tubes . . . . . . 243
8.2.2. Different sensors: video-compatible solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.2.3. Optics for LLL systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.3. A case apart: the SWIR band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8.3.1. The interest of the SWIR band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
8.3.2. SWIR sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.3.3. Optics for the SWIR band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.4. The 3-5 µm and 8-12 µm bands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.4.1. The different types of sensors and the design
constraints relating to optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.4.2. Optical materials in the IR band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.4.3. Rather special optical components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8.5. The future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Chapter 9. From the Classic Microscope to the Tunnel
Effect Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Michel SPAJER
9.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
9.2. Towards the limit of resolution. Aspects of the formation
of images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.2.1. Transfer function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.2.2. Transfer function in coherent illumination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
9.2.3. Aberrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
9.2.4. Transfer function in partially coherent illumination . . . . . . . . . 273
9.2.5. Transfer function in incoherent illumination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
9.2.6. Structured illumination, synthetic pupil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
9.3. The confocal microscope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
9.3.1. Coherent confocal microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
9.3.2. Incoherent confocal microscope (fluorescence). . . . . . . . . . . . 280
x Optics in Instruments
9.3.3. 4Pi synthetic aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9.3.4. Stimulated emission depletion (STED) confocal microscope. . . . 283
9.4. Adaptive optics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9.5. Polarized light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
9.6. Phase microscopies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
9.6.1. Absolute interferometric phase-shifting measurements . . . . . . . 287
9.6.2. Measurements based on a single interferogram . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.6.3. 3D holographic microscopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.7. Confined light microscopy techniques. Evanescent waves. . . . . . . . 291
9.8. Near-field local probe microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.9. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
9.10. Glossary of terms used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Preface
Optical components-based instruments play a fundamental role in the scientific
and technological advances of our time. We need to consider only a few examples,
ranging from the most ordinary to the most complex. All of us have used a camera
or a camcorder. The reading of bar codes by optical detection, with the aid of lasers,
is commonplace in shops. Likewise, we use optical writing and reading on compact
disks. Measurements and controls in industry are always carried out through
spectroscopic methods. The telescope is essential in the observation of celestial
bodies, and has allowed us to verify hypotheses related to our solar system. The
instruments recently sent into space allow us to view our universe at distances that
seemed impossible to achieve a few decades ago. The microscope has triggered an
equally great revolution in biology and medicine, opening up vast new horizons in
these fields, in diagnosis as well as treatment. The camera allowed for far more
objective observation of the world than with the naked eye. These brief
considerations allow us to understand the immensely important role played by optics
in instruments for our view and our current conception of the world. These
instruments are absolutely indispensable for a modern and objective view of reality.
In the current work, the basics necessary for the understanding of optics-based
instruments and systems are provided, along with some concrete examples of
realization and development. The objective is to allow students, scientists and non-
specialists in optics to better comprehend the wealth of physical phenomena which
govern these instruments and to make optimal use of them. With this goal in mind, we
will look at the principles being applied, as well as practical aspects. The description
of photographic systems as well as the huge developments in microscopy will
illustrate recent evolutions. In this volume we will limit ourselves to ultraviolet,
visible and near infrared domains.
An optical instrument is generally made up of several different optical systems
(for example, the objectives and eyepieces when the detector functions as the eye) or