Optical WDM networks : from static to elastic networks

385 Pages·2019·4.852 MB·English

by  Chadha, Devi

Optical WDM Networks
Optical WDM Networks: From Static
to Elastic Networks
Devi Chadha
Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India
This edition first published 2019
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Name: Chadha, Devi, author.
Title: Optical WDM networks : From Static to Elastic Networks / Devi Chadha,
Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India.
Description: Hoboken, NJ, USA : Wiley, [2019] | Includes bibliographical
references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018061450 (print) | LCCN 2019000068 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119393375 (AdobePDF) | ISBN 9781119393344 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119393269
(hardcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Wavelength division multiplexing.
Classification: LCC TK5103.592.W38 (ebook) | LCC TK5103.592.W38 C53 2019
(print) | DDC 621.39/81–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018061450
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Wenjie Dong/Getty Images
Set in 10/12pt WarnockPro by SPi Global, Chennai, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Contents
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvii
1 Introduction to Optical Networks 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Trends in Optical Networking 2
1.1.2 Classification of Optical Networks 3
1.2 Optical Networks: A Brief Picture 7
1.2.1 Multiplexing in Optical Networks 8
1.2.2 Services Supported by Optical Networks 9
1.2.3 WDM Optical Network Architectures 10
1.2.3.1 Broadcast‐and‐Select Networks 10
1.2.3.2 Wavelength Routed Networks 11
1.2.3.3 Linear Lightwave Networks 13
1.2.4 Services Types 13
1.2.5 Types of Traffic 14
1.2.6 Switching Granularities 14
1.2.6.1 Optical Circuit Switching 15
1.2.6.2 Packet Switching for Bursty Traffic 15
1.3 Optical Network Layered Architecture 16
1.3.1 Layers and Sub‐layers 19
1.4 Organization of the Book 23
1.5 Summary 24
Problems 24
References 25
2 Network Elements 27
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Optical Fiber 29
2.2.1 Loss and Bandwidth Windows 30
2.2.2 Linear and Nonlinear Effects 32
vi Contents
2.3 Laser Transmitters 33
2.3.1 Laser Characteristics 34
2.3.2 Tunable Lasers 34
2.3.3 Modulation Techniques 35
2.4 Optical Receivers 36
2.5 Optical Amplifiers 37
2.5.1 Types of Optical Amplifiers 38
2.5.1.1 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier 38
2.5.1.2 Fiber Amplifiers 39
2.6 Optical Network Components 40
2.6.1 Passive Coupler Devices 40
2.6.1.1 Coupler Parameters 41
2.6.1.2 Scattering Matrix Formulation of the 2 × 2 Coupler 42
2.6.2 Switching Elements 44
2.6.2.1 Directive Switches 46
2.6.2.2 Gate Switches 46
2.6.2.3 Micro‐Electro Mechanical Switches 47
2.6.2.4 Liquid Crystal Optical Switch 48
2.6.3 N × N Star Coupler 49
2.6.4 Gratings 52
2.6.4.1 Fiber Bragg Gratings 53
2.6.4.2 Arrayed Waveguide Grating 54
2.6.5 Optical Filters 55
2.6.5.1 Fabry‐Perot Filter 56
2.6.5.2 Multi‐Layer Dielectric Thin‐Film Filter 58
2.6.5.3 Acousto‐Optic Filter 58
2.7 Optical Multiplexer and De‐Multiplexer 58
2.7.1 Mach‐Zehnder Interferometer (MZI) Multiplexer 59
2.8 Routers 62
2.8.1 Static Wavelength Router 62
2.8.2 Reconfigurable Wavelength Router 62
2.8.3 Optical Packet Routing Switches 64
2.9 Optical Switching Fabrics 64
2.9.1 Classification of Switching Fabrics 65
2.9.1.1 Permutation Switching Fabric 65
2.9.1.2 Generalized Switching Fabric 65
2.9.1.3 Linear Divider and Combiner Switching Fabric 65
2.9.2 Classification According to Blocking Characteristics 66
2.9.3 Types of Space Switching Fabrics 67
2.9.3.1 Cross‐Bar Switching Fabric 67
2.9.3.2 Clos Switch Fabric 69
2.9.3.3 Spanke Switch Fabric 70
2.9.3.4 Benes Switch Fabric 71
Contents vii
2.9.3.5 Spanke‐Benes Switch Fabric 72
2.10 Wavelength Converter 72
2.10.1 Opto‐Electronic Wavelength Converters 73
2.10.2 All‐Optical Wavelength Converters 74
2.10.2.1 Transparent All‐Optical Wavelength Converters 74
2.10.2.2 Opaque All‐Optical Wavelength Converter 74
2.11 Optical Network Functional Blocks 76
2.11.1 Network Access Terminal 76
2.11.2 Optical Network Node 78
2.11.2.1 Optical Add‐Drop Multiplexers 79
2.11.2.2 Optical Cross‐Connect 82
2.12 Summary 85
Problems 86
References 88
3 Broadcast‐and‐Select Local Area Networks 91
3.1 Introduction 91
3.2 Physical Topologies of Single‐Hop Networks 92
3.2.1 Star Topology 92
3.2.2 Folded Bus Topology 93
3.2.3 Tree Topology 93
3.3 Multiplexing and Multiple Access in B&S Networks 95
3.4 Network Traffic 95
3.4.1 Circuit‐Switched Traffic 97
3.4.1.1 Streamed Synchronous Traffic on Dedicated Connections 97
3.4.1.2 Packet Traffic with Fixed Frame on Dedicated
Connections 98
3.4.1.3 Traffic with Demand‐Assigned Circuit‐Switched
Connections 102
3.4.2 Optical Packet Switching 105
3.5 Network Resource Sharing in Optical Networks 106
3.5.1 Capacity Increase with Number of λ‐Channels 107
3.5.2 Capacity Increase with Number of Time Slots 107
3.6 Capacity of the B&S Network 108
3.6.1 Scheduling Efficiency 109
3.7 Packet Switching in the Optical Layer in B&S
Networks 110
3.8 Medium Access Protocols 111
3.8.1 Non‐pre‐transmission Coordination 112
3.8.2 Pre‐transmission Coordinated MAC Protocol 113
3.8.2.1 Slotted Aloha/Slotted Aloha Protocols 114
3.8.2.2 DT‐WDMA Scheduling Protocol 118
3.8.2.3 MAC Scheduling Protocols 121
viii Contents
3.9 Summary 122
Problems 122
References 124
4 Optical Access Networks 127
4.1 Introduction 127
4.2 Available Access Technologies 128
4.2.1 Access Network Classification 129
4.2.1.1 Digital Subscriber Line 130
4.2.1.2 Cable Television 130
4.2.1.3 Hybrid Fiber Coaxial Network 130
4.2.1.4 Fixed Wireless Access Networks 131
4.2.1.5 Satellite Wireless Access Networks 132
4.3 Optical Fiber Access Networks 132
4.3.1 Passive Optical Network Topology 134
4.4 PON Architectures in Access Networks 135
4.4.1 Broadcast‐and‐Select Passive Optical Networks 135
4.5 TDM/TDMA EPON Operation 138
4.5.1 Upstream Communication in PON 138
4.5.2 Multi‐Point Control Protocol 139
4.5.2.1 Auto‐Discovery and Registration 140
4.5.2.2 Ranging and Clock Synchronization 141
4.5.2.3 Signaling Messages Used for Arbitration 142
4.5.3 Dynamic Bandwidth Allocation Algorithms 143
4.5.3.1 Service Disciplines 144
4.5.3.2 Interleaved Polling with Adaptive Cycle Time DBA Protocol 145
4.6 WDM PON Network Architecture 146
4.6.1 WDM PON with TPON Architecture 146
4.6.2 Wavelength Routing WDM PON 147
4.7 Next‐Generation PONs 147
4.7.1 NG‐PON1 148
4.7.2 Long‐Term Evolution – NG‐PON2 150
4.8 Free Space Optical Access and WOBAN 151
4.8.1 Optical Wireless Access System 152
4.8.2 Hybrid Wireless‐Optical Broadband Access Network 153
4.9 Summary 153
Problems 154
References 155
5 Optical Metropolitan Area Networks 159
5.1 Introduction 159
5.2 Synchronous Optical Network/Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy 161
Contents ix
5.2.1 SONET Networks 161
5.2.2 SONET Multiplexing 163
5.2.2.1 Virtual Tributaries 164
5.2.3 SONET Frame 165
5.2.4 SONET/SDH Devices 166
5.2.4.1 Terminal Multiplexer/De‐multiplexer 166
5.2.4.2 Regenerator 167
5.2.4.3 Add/Drop Multiplexer 167
5.2.4.4 Digital Cross‐Connect 167
5.2.5 SONET Protocol Hierarchy 167
5.2.6 SONET Network Configurations 169
5.2.6.1 SONET Ring Architecture 169
5.2.7 Traffic Grooming in SONET/SDH Networks 172
5.2.8 Scalability of SONET/SDH Networks 173
5.3 Optical Transport Network 174
5.3.1 Layered Hierarchy of OTN 175
5.3.2 Lines Rates of OTN 177
5.3.3 OTN Frame Structure 179
5.3.3.1 OTN Frame Structure Overheads 180
5.3.4 OTN Switching 181
5.3.4.1 OTN Switch 182
5.3.5 Tandem Connection Monitoring 183
5.4 Summary 186
Problems 186
References 188
6 Wavelength Routed Wide Area Networks 189
6.1 Introduction 189
6.2 The Hybrid Wavelength Routed Network Architecture 192
6.3 The Optical Layer in Wavelength Routing Networks 196
6.4 Design of Wavelength Routed Network with Logical Routing
Network Overlay 197
6.5 Analysis of WDM Wavelength Routing Networks 199
6.5.1 Optimization Problem Formulation of the WRN 200
6.6 Heuristic Solutions for WDM Wavelength Routing Networks 205
6.6.1 Design Parameters, Performance Metrics, and QoS Issues 206
6.6.2 Route Selection Algorithms 207
6.6.2.1 Breadth‐First‐Search Algorithm 208
6.6.2.2 Dijkstra Algorithm 210
6.6.3 Heuristic Wavelength Routing Algorithms 211
6.6.3.1 Fixed Routing 211
6.6.3.2 Fixed‐Alternate Routing 212
6.6.3.3 Adaptive Routing 212
x Contents
6.6.3.4 Least Congested Path Routing 213
6.6.4 Wavelength Assignment Algorithms 213
6.6.4.1 Fixed Order First Fit 214
6.6.4.2 Random Assignment 214
6.6.4.3 Least Used Wavelength Assignment 214
6.6.4.4 Most Used Wavelength Assignment 215
6.6.5 Joint Routing‐Wavelength Assignment Algorithm 218
6.7 Logical Topology Design Heuristics 218
6.7.1 Logical Topology Design Algorithm with Congestion
Minimization 219
6.7.2 Logical Topology Design Algorithm with Delay Minimization 220
6.7.3 Logical Topology Design Algorithm with Link Elimination
and Matching 220
6.7.4 Simulated Annealing‐Based LT Heuristics 221
6.8 Summary 222
Problems 222
References 225
7 Network Control and Management 229
7.1 Introduction 229
7.2 NMS Architecture of Optical Transport Network 232
7.3 Logical Architecture of Automatic Switched Optical Network 234
7.3.1 Interaction Between the Client Control Layer and the Optical
Control Layer 236
7.4 Functions of Management and Control Plane 238
7.4.1 Discovery or State Information 238
7.4.2 Routing 240
7.4.3 Signaling 240
7.4.3.1 Signaling Network 241
7.4.3.2 Alarm Management System 242
7.4.3.3 Resource Reservation Signaling Protocol 242
7.4.4 Performance Monitoring 244
7.4.5 Fault Management 245
7.4.6 Security, Accounting Management, and Policing 246
7.5 Generalized Multi‐Protocol Label Switching 246
7.5.1 Interfaces in GMPLS 248
7.5.2 GMPLS Control Plane Functions and Services 248
7.5.3 GMPLS Protocol Suite 251
7.5.4 Path Computation Element 254
7.6 Summary 256
Problems 256
References 257