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ROY/ L COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CHAIRMAN: PROFESSORT. R. E. SOUTHWOOD NINTH REPORT LEAD IN THE ENVIRONMENT Presentedto ParliamentbyCommandofPierMajesty April1983 LONDON HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE £9.20net Cmnd, 8852 PrintedimagedigitisedbytheUniversityofSouthamptonLibraryDigitisationUnit PreviousReports 1streport FirstReport Cmnd.4585February 1971 2ndreport ThreeIssuesinIndustrial Pollution Cmnd.4894March 1972 3rdreport PollutioninsomeBritish EstuariesandCoastalWaters Cmnd. 5054September1972 4threport PollutionControl:Progress andProblems Cmnd. 5780December1974 5threport AirPollutionControl: anIntegratedApproach Cmnd.6371January 1976 6threport NuclearPowerandthe Environment Cmnd. 6618September1976 7threport Agricultureand Pollution Cmnd.7644September1979 8threport OilPollutionof theSea Cmnd. 8358October1981 ISBN0 10 188520 2 PrintedimagedigitisedbytheUniversityofSouthamptonLibraryDigitisationUnit ROYAL COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION NINTHREPORT To the Queen’s MostExcellentMajesty May it please Your Majesty We,theundersignedCommissioners,havingbeenappointedutoadviseon matters, both national and international, concerning the pollution of the environment; ontheadequacyofresearchinthisfield; andthefuturepos- sibilitiesofdangertotheenvironment”; AndtoenquireintoanysuchmattersreferredtousbyoneofAourMajestys SecretariesofStateorbyoneofYourMajesty’sMinisters,oranyothersuch mattersonwhichweourselvesshalldeemitexpedienttoadvise: HUMBLY SUBMITTO YOUR MAJESTYTHE FOLLOWING REPORT. iii PrintedimagedigitisedbytheUniversityofSouthamptonLibraryDigitisationUnit o“Ifttihseonterutthh.i’n5gtoshowamanheisinerrorandanothertoputhiminpossession AAntrrssayconcerni.ngHumanJoUhnndeLrosctkaendi1n6g32(-11679004) chParancgtei.c”alwisdomisdeliberationaboutthingswhichitiswithinourpowerto Aristotle384-322 NicomacheanEthics iv PrintedimagedigitisedbytheUniversityofSouthamptonLibraryDigitisationUnit 1 CONTENTS CHAPTER I Introduction Para. Page Thechoiceofstudy 1-1 1 Dispersionofleadthroughhumanactivity 1.4 1 Physicalandchemicalpropertiesoflead 1-8 3 Problemsofmeasurement 1-10 3 Previousreviews 1-13 5 Scopeandnatureofthisstudy 1-20 6 CHAPTER II LeadintheEnvironment Naturalandanthropogenicsources 2.1 8 Leadintheair 2.4 11 Leadinwater 2.11 17 Leadinsoil 2.15 18 Leadindust 2.25 22 Conclusions 2.29 24 CHAPTER III LeadinPlantsandAnimals Introduction 3.1 25 Micro-organisms 3.2 25 Plants ^3.6 26 Invertebrates 3.12 29 Vertebrates 3.13 29 Poisoningofbirdsbyorganiclead 3.18 32 Aquaticlife 3.22 33 Conclusions 3.24 33 CHAPTER IV LeadinMan Introduction 4.1 36 Leadwithinthebody 4.4 36 Measurementofbodyburdenoflead 4.6 37 Sourcesandpathways 4.11 38 Exposureandbloodleadconcentration 4.15 39 Intake anduptake 4.18 39 EuropeanCommunitysurveysofbloodleadconcentration 4.34 48 OtherdataforbloodleadconcentrationintheBritishIsles 4.40 5 Otherdataforbloodleadconcentrationoverseas 4.43 54 TheIsotopicLeadExperiment 4.46 55 Conclusions 4.49 57 v PrintedimagedigitisedbytheUniversityofSouthamptonLibraryDigitisationUnit CHAPTER V EffectsofLeadonManandAnimals Para. Page Introduction 52 5g Frankpoisoning 54 59 Effectsatlowbloodconcentration 57 ^0 PRoepsuelaartcihononsuarnviemyaslobfechhaivlidoruenr 55149 6^2q Cellularprocesses CCCCLL 5 2g 53 Reproduction 5.20 65 Caremogenidty 5.21 65 lnresholdsandsafetymargins 522 65 Conclusions 524 55 CHAPTER VI ReductionofExposuretoLeadfromWater,FoodandLocalisedSources LLLILneeeetaaaarddddodmiiiunnnctpftdiauaooisponntdtwaatnedrdrink 5^C^^2o9t2931 7^7o17n ILnedaudstrsihaoltemissions , 6P4An0 8Q10 rewter,cosmeticsandothermiscellaneoussources 646 89 Conclusions ^'47 ^ CHAPTER VII LeadinPetrol introduction CTohmepirnetsesrinaolncroamtibousatnidonenegnignieneknock 7771502 g877 AOIPWOncpethttttheryiierooornllnnaesptqairiundofoaoplntireiashtrleaytaciadUhaecdninsteieiddtvooifenontdclogtteoKapafnierduetenrritdgonnhulduecpormeemtbrrleeeodrvluelcstioofnsleiandlienadpeetmrioslsio.n.s. 77777*.’132124876i 999g8590g8 frompetrol 7#45 204 TOErcmaitnsassniiteoionqnuaaflloirteacyrarwsatinstghfeoomuretnatlletsaerdfnoartievxeistoipntgiocnasrs ’ ' ^‘‘ " 777.'557360 j11010376 FEIIfummfpepelllciitccesaacttooiinnoonnonssmayftfoioarronnttadhhleeiemomnipoelrtriogonvyrdeucidsontsdtrtueysscthrnyology *’’’’’_’'’ 7717‘1g9g58go 211222119446 Coststothemotorist 7203 193 vi PrintedimagedigitisedbytheUniversityofSouthamptonLibraryDigitisationUnit . Para. Page Otherfactorsaffectingenergyusage 7.111 128 EuropeanCommunityimplications 7.113 129 Conclusions 7.128 133 CHAPTER VIII Conclusions Introduction 8.1 135 The significanceofleadasanenvironmentalpollutant . 8.3 135 Anthropogenic sources and pathways of lead in the environment ••• 8.22 137 Opportunitiesforreducingenvironmentalcontaminationby lead 8.27 138 CHAPTER IX Recommendations Listofrecommendations 141 Acknowledgement 144 APPENDICES 21.. MOregmabneisrastioofnsthaenCdoimnmdiivsisdiuoalnscontributingtothestudy 114458 34.. NEsottiemaotniounniotfsianntdakceonavnedrsuipotnakfaectoofrsleadbyman 115534 5. TheAdtileasnetlicanRdesotehaerrchenAgsisnoecsinaottesneedinghighoct•a•ne• fuel:noteby 160 6. CouncilDirectiveof29June1978ontheapproximationofthelaws ofthe Member States concerningthe leadcontentofpetrol (78/611/EEC) 165 168 References 177 Index * vii PrintedimagedigitisedbytheUniversityofSouthamptonLibraryDigitisationUnit j FIGURES Page 2.1 LeadcontentofannualicelayersinGreenland 9 2.2 LeadanalysisofapeatprofilefromDerbyshire 10 2.3 UKleadconsumption, 1982 11 2.4 Concentrationofairborneleadbesideamotorway 13 2.5 Depositionofleadongrassbesideamotorway 13 2.6 FateuofleadaddedtopetrolintheUK 14 2.7 Leademissionsfrom motorvehiclesintheUK, 1970-1982 15 2.8 Monthlyaverageairleadconcentrationinthecentralreservation oftheM4motorway, 1973-1979 16 2.9 PathwaysofleadtotheNorthSeafromborderingcountries 19 2.10 Relationshipbetweensoilleadconcentrationandageofgarden fortwovillagesinSouthWestEngland 20 2.11 DistributionofleadinstreamsedimentsinEnglandandWales 22 3.1 Lethalandsublethalconcentrationsofinorganicleadforaquatic (freshwaterandmarine)organisms 34 4.1 Relationship betweenbloodlead concentrationand total lead uptakeforadults 40 4.2 Relationshipbetweenbloodlead concentrationand total lead uptakeforadults,showingtherangeofinterpretationpossible fromFigure4.1 40 4.3 Frequency distribution of blood lead concentration in adults living in an inner city area (Manchester) and a small town (Llanybydder) 49 4.4 BloodleadconcentrationbyageofUKchildrenintheEuropean Communitybloodleadsurvey, 1979 50 4.5 EuropeanCommunitybloodleadsurvey, 1979: median blood leadconcentrationinadultsandchildren ... 52 4.6 'fno, concentration of groups of Welsh women 4.7 Tre1nQd7sSinibnloonodlead,gasolineleadanddietarJyleadintheUSA, 53 55 5.1 Synthesisofneurotransmitters 64 77..12 PVeatlrvoelsaenadtrdieecseeslsicoonmbustionsystems 86 7777....6534 ELfe*foJaeecdcctttaen°omefnislncseuliaemodanbrcefporonor1toe1el6c1na1ots1tcos°tnaDfnorerefoaiflnteperhr0yanialsftiucinevoglencosououptntmsilPuoetnmaispdotne'id!ao!npn’ed*t'ro'opl’t’i"m’u'’m' 11119019287 7.7 Relaantdioanvsehriapgbeeptewtereolnecnognisnuempsitzie,onrecommendedgradeofpetrol 120 126 InAppendix5 A May‘Fireball’system B Petrolinjectioncomparedwithcarburation 116622 vm PrintedimagedigitisedbytheUniversityofSouthamptonLibraryDigitisationUnit TABLES Page 1.1 Environmentalresidencetimesforvariouspollutants 2 1.2 Annualuseofcadmium,leadandmercuryintheUK 3 2.1 Historicalworldwideconsumptionandanthropogenicemissions ofleadtotheair 8 2.2 LeadconcentrationsintheUSAtodayandestimatedasnatural 9 2.3 Recoveryofleadproducts 12 2.4 Airleadconcentrationanddepositionatruralsites 15 2.5 Leadintap waterinGreatBritain 18 2.6 Leadin dustinGreatBritain 23 3.1 Leadinsoilsandplants 27 3.2 Leadinfreshfruitandvegetables 27 3.3 Lead infreshvegetablesgrownatShipham, Somerset 28 3.4 Totalamountsofleadincomponentsofacrosssectionofcon- taminatedwoodlanddownwindofaprimarysmelter 29 3.5 Leadinbloodandkidneysofvertebrateanimals 30 3.6 Leadinsmallanimalsfromroadside,contaminatedandcontrol sites 30 4.1 SummaryofmodelbalanceschemesinAppendix4 42 4.2 Leadconcentrationincomponentsoftheaveragediet 43 4.3 Someexperimentalvaluesforthepercentageofleadremoved fromcropsbywashing 44 4.4 Comparisonofbalanceschemesforleaduptakeofurbanadults 47 4.5 BloodleadconcentrationofadultsinmajorUKcitiesfromfirst EuropeanCommunitysurvey,1979 49 4.6 Estimateddistributionofbloodleadconcentrationinadultsin majorUKcitiesin 1979 50 4.7 Bloodleadconcentrationofurbanteachersinaninternational surveywithstrictqualitycontrol 54 6.1 Leadcontentofsomepaintsonsaleinthe UK 73 6.2 Leadanalysesofyellowroadpaint 74 6.3 UKcannedfoodconsumption,1979 • 79 7.1 Maximumpermittedleadcontentofpetrolindifferentcountries, February 1983 * C)/i 7.2 ProgressbyEuropeanCommunityMemberStatesinimplement- ingDirective 78/611/EEContheleadcontentofpetrol ... 99 7.3 Trends in UKvehicleleademissionsandpetrolconsumption, 1971-1982 100 7.4 UK lead in petrol reduction programme—progress against originaltargetsandEuropeanCommunityproposals 102 7.5 WOPLIP—summaryofmainquantitativefindings 103 7.6 Estimates ofcrude oilrequiredforpetrolin1996 atdifferent leadlevelsandonvariousassumptionsaboutimprovedfuel economy 122 ix PrintedimagedigitisedbytheUniversityofSouthamptonLibraryDigitisationUnit Page InAppendix4 1. Modelbalanceschemesforleadintakeanduptake 155 2. Modelofthe potential contributionofpetrolleadtothetotal leaduptakeforchildren 159 x PrintedimagedigitisedbytheUniversityofSouthamptonLibraryDigitisationUnit