Oilfield Water Technology

712 Pages·2006·32.042 MB·English

by  Davies, Michael, Scott, P.J.B.

Oilfield
Water
Technology
Michael Davies and P. J.B. Scott
&NACE
INTEINATIONAL
1440 South Creek Drive
Houston, Texas 77084
I N T E R N A T I O N A L
0 2006 NACE International
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 1-57590-204-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006928764
Printed in the United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts
thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the copyright
owners.
Neither NACE International, its officers, directors, nor members thereof
accept any responsibility for the use of the methods and materials discussed
herein. The information is advisory only and the use of the materials
and methods is solely at the risk of the user.
Acknowledgments
NACE wishes to thank the many sources of information and graphics
materials from which portions of this book were drawn with permission.
xv
List of Figures
xvii
List of Tables
xix
About the Authors
1
1 Introduction
3
References
5
2 Types of Waters
6
2.1 Fresh Water
6
2.2 Seawater
9
2.3 Brines
10
2.4 Formation Waters
10
2.5 Injection Waters
12
2.6 Produced Waters
16
2.7 Oilfield Waste Waters
17
References
21
3 Oil Production Techniques
22
3.1 Waterflood
22
3.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
24
3.3 Thermal Processes
24
3.3.1 Steam Injection
27
3.3.2 Fireflooding
27
3.4 CO2 Injection
28
3.5 Chemical Injection
28
References
31
4 Analysis of Water
32
4.1 Sample Collection
37
4.1.1 Sampling Scale and Deposits
38
4.1.1.1 Removing Deposits
38
4.1.1.2 Quantity of Sample
38
4.1.1.3 Analysis of Water-Formed Deposits
V
vi Contents
4.2 Test Equipment 39
4.3 Test Methods and Checks 40
4.4 Determination of Major Components 42
4.4.1 Calcium 42
4.4.2 Magnesium 42
4.4.3 Sodium 42
4.4.4 Chloride 43
4.4.5 Sulfate 43
4.4.6 Bicarbonate and Carbonate 43
4.5 Determination of Minor Components 44
4.5.1 Barium 44
4.5.2 Carbon Dioxide 44
4.5.3 Hydrogen Sulfide 44
4.5.4 Iron 45
4.5.5 Manganese 45
4.5.6 Oxygen 45
4.5.7 Phosphate 46
4.5.8 Silica 47
4.5.9 Sulfite 47
4.6 Determination of Biological Components 47
4.7 Determination of Physical and Other Components 48
4.7.1 Water Quality for Subsurface Injection 48
4.7.2 Oil in Water 48
4.7.3 Basic Sediment and Water (BS&W) 49
4.7.4 Specific Gravity 49
4.7.5 Specific Resistivity 49
4.7.6 Temperature 50
4.7.7 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 50
4.7.8 Turbidity 50
4.7.9 Alkalinity and Acidity 51
4.7.10 Hardness 52
4.7.11 pH 52
4.7.12 Water Compatibility 54
4.8 Expression of Water Analysis Results 55
4.8.1 Palmer’s Classification 57
4.8.2 Graphic Illustrations 59
4.8.2.1 Stiffs Method 59
4.8.2.2 Tickell’s Method 60
4.8.2.3 Reistle’s Method 60
4.8.2.4 Cummer‘s Method 61
4.8.2.5 Telkessy’s Diagram 61
4.8.2.6 Schoeller’s Semilogarithmic Diagram 61
4.8.2.7 Hill’s Trilinear Method 61
4.8.2.8 Langelier’s Single-Point Method 61
4.8.2.9 Langelier’s Single-Point Diagram of Mixtures 62
References 62
Contents vii
5 Corrosion Mechanisms 65
5.1 General Corrosion 65
5.2 Localized Corrosion 65
5.2.1 Crevice Corrosion 66
5.2.2 Underdeposit Corrosion 66
5.2.3 Tuberculation 66
5.2.4 Pitting Corrosion 66
5.2.5 MicrobiologicallyI nfluenced Corrosion (MIC) 67
5.3 Environmentally Assisted Cracking (EAC) 67
5.3.1 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) 68
5.3.2 Hydrogen Effects 68
5.3.3 Corrosion Fatigue 69
5.4 Velocity-Influenced Corrosion 69
5.4.1 Erosion Corrosion 70
5.4.2 Cavitation 70
5.5 Galvanic Corrosion 70
5.6 Intergranular Corrosion 71
5.7 Dealloying or Selective Attack 71
References 71
6 Corrosion of Metals 73
6.1 Carbon Steels and Cast Irons 73
6.2 Alloy Steels 77
6.3 Stainless Steels 78
6.3.1 Martensitic Stainless Steels 78
6.3.2 Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels 80
6.3.3 Ferritic Stainless Steels 80
6.3.4 Austenitic Stainless Steels 81
6.3.5 Duplex Stainless Steels 83
6.3.6 Cast Stainless Steels 85
6.3.7 Stainless Steels in Oilfield Waters 85
6.4 Nickel Alloys 89
6.5 Copper Alloys 94
6.6 Titanium and Its Alloys 96
References 100
7 Nonmetallic Behavior 107
7.1 Plastics 107
7.1.1 Thermoplastic 107
7.1.1.1 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 107
7.1.1.2 Polyolefines-Polyethylene, Polypropylene,
and Polybutylene 108
7.1.1.3 Fluorocarbons 109
7.1.1.4 Other Thermoplastics 110
7.1.2 Thermosetting Resins 113
7.1.2.1 Polyesters 113
viii Contents
7.1.2.2 Viiyl Esters 113
7.1.2.3 Epoxies 114
7.1.3 Fiber-Reinforced Plastics (FRP) 114
7.1.3.1 Dual Laminate Construction 119
7.1.4 Elastomers 120
7.1.5 Environmental Degradation of Plastics 122
7.1.5.1 Biodeterioration 123
7.1.5.1.1 Materials Attacked 124
7.1.5.1.2 Remedial Measures 125
7.2 Concrete 125
7.2.1 Reinforced Concrete 125
7.2.2 Prestressed Concrete 126
7.2.3 Deterioration of Concrete in Waters 126
7.2.3.1 Corrosion of Reinforcement 127
7.3 Coatings and Linings 128
7.3.1 Coatings 129
7.3.2 Linings 130
7.3.2.1 Thermoplastics 130
7.3.2.2 Thermosets 131
7.3.2.3 Rubber 132
7.3.2.4 Cement and Concrete 133
References 133
8 Corrosion in Waters 139
8.1 Effect of Oil in Water 139
8.2 Effect of Velocity 144
8.3 Effect of Biofilms and Chlorination in Seawater 150
8.4 Galvanic Effects 153
8.5 Effect of Oxygen 159
8.6 Effect of CO2 162
8.7 Effect of Sulfides 165
8.8 Effect of Salts 169
8.9 Influence of pH 172
8.10 Influence of Temperature 174
References 176
9 Corrosion Monitoring 183
9.1 Corrosion Monitoring Techniques 184
9.1.1 Operating Conditions 184
9.1.1.1 Chemical Composition 185
9.1.1.2 Physical Conditions 187
9.1.1.3 Operating Equipment 187
9.1.1.4 Inspection 188
9.1.1.4.1 Inspection Protocol 189
9.1.1.5 Failure Analysis 189
Contents ix
9.1.2 Corrosion Monitors 190
9.1.2.1 Corrosion Coupons 191
9.1.2.2 Electrical Resistance (ER) Method 192
9.1.2.3 Inductive Resistance (IR) Method 193
9.1.2.4 Hydrogen Probes 194
9.1.2.5 Acoustic Emission 194
9.1.2.6 Sand-Erosion Monitors 195
9.1.2.7 Sentinel Holes 195
9.1.3 Electrochemical Corrosion Monitoring
Techniques 195
9.1.3.1 Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR) 195
9.1.3.2 Zero-Resistance Ammeter (ZRA)
or Galvanic Probes 196
9.1.3.3 AC Impedance 197
9.1.3.4 Electrochemical Noise 197
9.1.3.5 Other Techniques 197
References 198
10 Corrosion Control 201
10.1 Process Changes 201
10.2 Cathodic Protection 203
10.3 Corrosion Inhibitors 204
References 211
11 Oilfield Water Microbiology 213
11.1 Types of Bacteria 215
11.1.1 General Aerobic Bacteria (GAB) 216
11.1.2 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria (SRB) and
Sulfide-Producing Bacteria (SPB) 216
11.1.3 Sulfur-Oxidizing Bacteria (SOB) 218
11.1.4 Iron and Manganese Oxidizing Bacteria (IOB
and MOB) 218
11.1.5 Metal-Reducing Bacteria (MRB) 218
11.1.6 Nitrogen-Utilizing Bacteria 219
11.1.7 Methanogens 219
11.1.8 Acid-Producing Bacteria (APB) 219
11.1.9 Thermophilic Bacteria 220
11.2 Problems Caused by Bacteria 221
11.2.1 Souring 231
11.2.2 Plugging and Loss of Injectivity 232
11.2.3 Equipment Failures 232
11.2.4 Storage Problems 232
11.2.5 Pipeline Attack 232
11.2.6 Injection Water Problems 233
References 234
x Contents
12 Monitoring for MIC 243
12.1 Sample Collection and Storage 244
12.2 Sampling Methods and Techniques 246
12.2.1 Cultures 246
12.2.2 Serial Dilutions and Most Probable
Number 247
12.2.3 Sampling and Monitoring Techniques
for Sessile Bacteria 247
12.2.4 Other Methods 249
12.3 Monitoring SRB 251
12.4 Microbial Sampling of Equipment Surfaces 253
12.5 Biocide Monitoring 253
12.5.1 Biocide Quantity 253
12.5.2 Biocide Efficacy 255
References 255
13 Biological Control 261
13.1 Biodispersants 262
13.2 Biocides 262
13.2.1 Biocide Selection 262
13.2.2 Biocide Application 263
13.2.3 Regulatory Considerations 264
13.3 Biocide Experience in the Oil and Gas Industry 265
13.3.1 Oxidizing Biocides 266
13.3.2 Nonoxidizing Biocides 267
13.4 Nitrate Addition and Biocompetitive Exclusion 268
13.5 Effect of Corrosion Inhibitors on MIC 271
References 272
14 Scales and Sludges Deposited from Water 277
14.1 Calcium Carbonate 280
14.2 Scaling Prediction 286
14.2.1 Langelier Saturation Index 287
14.2.2 Ryznar Stability Index 288
14.2.3 Puckorius Scaling Index 289
14.2.4 Stiff-Davis Index 290
14.2.5 Oddo-Tomson Index 292
14.2.6 Larson-Skold Index 292
14.2.7 Common Ion Indices 293
14.2.8 Computer Programs 295
14.3 Magnesium Carbonate and Hydroxide Deposits 297
14.4 Calcium Sulfate Deposits 298
14.4.1 Predicting Calcium Sulfate Deposition from Water 301
14.5 Barium Sulfate 303
14.5.1 Prediction of Barium Sulfate Solubility 305
Contents xi
14.6 Strontium Sulfate 306
14.7 Iron Deposits 307
14.8 Silica Deposits 308
14.9 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) 309
References 310
15 Scale Control 313
15.1 Scale-InhibitingC hemicals 314
15.2 Modification of Water Composition 324
15.3 Examples of Scale Control 324
15.4 Scale Removal 329
15.4.1 Chemical Removal 330
15.4.2 Mechanical Removal 332
References 333
16 Water Systems 337
16.1 Injection Waters 337
16.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) 351
16.3 Produced Waters 355
16.3.1 Treatment of Produced Water for Reuse 370
16.4 OilSands 382
16.5 Boiler Feedwater 384
16.5.1 Boiler Feedwater Treatment 386
16.5.1.1 Boiler Blowdown 390
16.5.1.2 Caustic Embrittlement 391
16.5.1.3 Condensate Returns 392
16.5.1.4 Treatment for Hardness 392
16.5.1.5 Removal of Condensate Gases 392
16.5.1.6 Oil Removal 392
16.5.1.7 Treatment for Corrosion 393
16.6 Cooling Water 397
16.6.1 Softening the Water 398
16.6.2 Acid Treatment 398
16.6.3 Use of Chemicals to Prevent Scale Formation 399
16.6.4 Controlled Calcium Carbonate Scale
Deposition 400
16.7 Cooling Towers 401
16.7.1 Prevention of Cooling Tower Fouling 402
16.7.1.1 Suspended Materials 403
16.7.1.2 Slime Prevention 403
16.7.2 Blowdown 404
16.7.2.1 Drift, Windage Loss, or Carry-Over 405
16.7.3 Cycles of Concentration 405
16.7.4 Evaporation Rate 405
16.7.5 Estimating Treatment Dosage 405
xii Contents
16.8 Specific Equipment 406
16.8.1 Tanks and Separators 406
16.8.2 Pumps 406
16.8.3 Piping and Pipelines 408
References 412
17 Water Treatment Processes and Equipment 419
17.1 Sedimentation and Coagulation 419
17.1.1 Sedimentation 420
17.1.1.1 Theory of Sedimentation 420
17.1.1.2 Design of Sedimentation Basins 425
17.1.1.3 Detention Time 426
17.1.1.4 Sludge Storage and Disposal 427
17.1.2 Coagulation 428
17.1.2.1 Coagulants 429
17.1.2.1.1 Aluminum Sulfate 430
17.1.2.1.2 Ferric Sulfate 431
17.1.2.1.3 Ferrous Sulfate 431
17.1.2.1.4 Potash Alum and Ammonia Alum 432
17.1.2.1.5 Sodium Aluminate 432
17.1.2.1.6 Coagulation Aids 433
17.1.2.1.7 Activated Silica 433
17.1.2.1.8 Polyelectrolytes 434
17.1.2.1.9 Clay 435
17.1.2.2 Zeta Potential 436
17.1.2.3 Mixing 436
17.1.2.4 Quantity of Coagulant and Xme 438
17.1.2.5 Temperature 438
17.2 Filtration 438
17.2.1 Theory of Filtration 440
17.2.2 Filter Media 442
17.2.3 Filtration Rate 446
17.2.3.1 Required Quality of Filtered Water 446
17.2.3.2 Character of Applied Water 446
17.2.3.3 Filter Bed Condition 448
17.2.4 Turbulent Flow 448
17.2.5 Washing Filters 449
17.2.6 Distribution Area 450
17.2.7 Velocity of Backwash Flow 450
17.2.8 Viscosity of Water 451
17.2.9 Size and Shape of Sand 451
17.2.10 Surface Wash 453
17.2.11 Air Scour 454
17.2.12 Frequency of Backwash 454
17.2.13 Precautions in Washing 456