Observations on Yellow-bellied Sheath-tailed BatsSaccoliamus flaviventris(Peters, 1867) (Chiroptera: Emballonuridae)

7 Pages·1997·1 MB·English

by  Martin Rhodes

Observations on Yellow-bellied Sheath-tailed Bats Saccoliamus
flaviventris (Peters, 186'7) (Chiroptera: Emballonuridae)
Martin P. Rhodes and Leslie S. Hall
Department of Anatomical Sciences, U~ii\~ersiolyf Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 40i2
ABSTRACT
The felling of a tree at Brightview, south-west of Brisbane containing a colony of 29 Saccoliamus
flaviventris provided an opportunity to obtain data on morphology, ectoparasites, and sex ratios from
13 individuals killed durino the tree fellina. This is the laroest known colonv of this soecies. The limited
ac~ vhae~ icla*~;~bn iglit ,vm oa~ fl urro~eo~ o~s rt otre~ea~ea~i mlrea~evs , bp ~r~e otrh teo cfealu lnseg o1s f dtheims~ oln$~ osdet~r a lea~on- ooryde~ oo! ~ah teio~ nnu bm~ f ob~e~ar tos.f iohates inm otnolsrt acnocoe~ n yo~ f.
Compar son of w ng morpno ogy showeo no slgn,Ilcant o fference between !he sexes ~ JsI g nlf cant
dfferences occJrreo oeNreen oats from Br~gntviowa no MI. sa. ncoental ooservatons on echooca.
tion call structure and flight behaviour are also presented. The dimensions of the wings of S. flaviventris
are similar to Nyctinomus australis, resulting in similar flight patterns for these species. Both species
fly straight and rapidly above the canopy, although observations suggest they fly at different times of
night, possibly due to differences in prey type.
INTRODUCTION This paper presents information on a tree
colony of S.Juuiuentrir and records observations
Despite being widespread over much of
on the capture and flight behaviour of this
Australia, information on the biology of Sac-
species in Queensland.
coliamz~fl~a uiuentrir is scant, particularly details
on roost dynamics. This can be attributed to a
MATERIALS AND METHODS
combination of its rarity throughout its distribu-
tion and the difficulty in capturing individuals
Brigh tnew colony
(Reardon and Flavel 1987; Richards 1995).
Although this bat is considered difficult to A colony of 29 S, Jlauiventrk was obtained
captul-e using mist nets and harp traps, most during the felling of a 20 m high dead tree at
observations of its flight behaviour are Brightview, (27"29'S, l.iZo31'E), near Laidley in
unequivocal. S, flauiuentris flies fast above the south-east Queensland, on 26 April 1996. The
canopy level (Reardon and Flavel 1987; Parnaby colony was discovered accidentally when the
1992; Wilson et al. 1993; Richards 1995), usually tree, located in open grazing land, was being cut
in a straight flight path with slow wing beats into sections for firewood after felling. Thirteen
(Reardon and Flavel 1987). The long, narrow individuals were killed either as a result of
wings of this species are responsible for felling or cutting of the tree. Data on morpho-
this observed flight behaviour (Dwyer 1965; metrics, parasites and reproductive status were
McKenzie and Rolfe 1986). obtained from each of these deceased bats. The
13 dead specimens are now in the Quecnsland
Saccoliumus Jlauiuenlris is the largest member
Museum (Nos. JM11418 to JM11430), and the
of the family Emhallonuridae in Australia, with
surviving 16 individuals were released near the
a forearm length of 74-77 mm and body weight
point of capture.
of 30-60 g (Richards 1995). Compared to other
microchiroptera in Australia, its taxonomy has The age, sex and reproductive condition of
remained fairly stable. This can be attributed to the bats was examined and recorded in the field.
the taxonomic wol-k of Trougbton (1925). Ectoparasites, collected from the 13 dead
Because of this bat's distinct fur colouration (jet specimens with the aid of fine forceps, were
black dorsally, pure to creamy white ventrally) stored in 90% ethanol. Idcntifi~ation of
and the tail protruding from the dorsal surface ectoparasites was based on the characters dis-
of the tail membrane, its identification is cussed in Klompen (1992). Body mass of' the
relatively easy, either in flight or in the hand bats was measured to the nearest 0.1 g with an
(Hall and Richards 1979; Reardon and Flavel electronic balance. Measurements of morpho-
1987; Richards 1995). Male S.flauiuentrir have a metric characters were made to the nearest
distinctive throat pouch in close proximity to a 0.1 mm with dial callipers. Measurcments
sebaceous gland, the function of which has been included length of ear, forearm, and metacarpal
postulated to be for territorial marking (Hall and phalangeal elements in digits 111, IV and V.
and Gordon 1982). The outline of the right half of each bat with the
March 1997 Australian Zoologist 30(3) 351
wing fully extended was traced on to paper cassette recorder (Realistic VSC-2001, Tandy
using the method described by Rhodes (1995). Electronics), and the Anabat recorded tapes
The area traced was calculated using a Calcomp were later analysed using Anabat I1 software
digitizer tablet connected to a Macintosh (Titley Electronics, Ballina, New South Wales)
computer running "Image 1.49" image analysis on a PC computer. Recordings of S. pavivenlris
programme (National Institute of Health, USA). echolocation calls were made on Fraser Island
Wing loading, aspect ratio, and wing tip ratios and at Karawatha Forest.
were derived using calculations as in Rhodes
(1995). Morphometric data were also obtained Additional records
from captures of three S. j?&ventris on the
Two live, but non-flying S, fiuiventris were
Djarra Road, 15 kilometres south of Mt. Isa
handed to the University of Queensland vet-
(20°52'S, 13928'E).
erinary clinic in May 1993 and August 1996.
They were found on the ground in suburban
Flight observations and call recordings
Brisbane. Both were males and were in a ~ o o r
Observations on the flight of S. flaviuentris state of health and died within two weeks.
were made at five locations. In luly 1988, at
Cape Tribulation National park (16'09'S, RESULTS
'
14j027'E); September 1993, at Southwood
National Park (27"50'S. 150°07'E): on a number Brigbmiew colony
of occasions bdtween 1985 and 1'996 at Moggill
Roost description
(27'34'5, 15Y52'E); on Fraser Island (25"26'S,
15Y05'E) in January 1995; and at Karawatha The colony containing 29 S.fiuiuentrir was in
Forest (27"40'S, 15Y09'E) between January and a hollow Eucalyptm sp. which had been dead for
March, 1995. On each occasion observations at least 10 years. The tree was 20 m high and
were made with a 50 or 100 watt hand-held spot- the roost was located 4 m from the top, with the
light. At Cape Tribulation the bats were exit facing west. The advanced state of decay
observed flying over low mangroves and the made detailed measurements of the tree inaccu-
tidal estuary of Noah Creek. At Southwood the rate after felling. The area immediately
observations were over an isolated stock dam in surrounding the roost tree had been extensively
low open forest; and the Moggill observations cleared recently, being in a paddock used for
were in cleared land along a road and along the grazing. The roost tree was approximately 25 m
hanks of the Brisbane River. At Karawatha from other trees, these being isolated stands of
Forest, S. fiuiuentris was observed flying over a E. blowomei and E. drepanophylh.
remnant tall eucalypt forest surrounded by
urban development. Age and -reproductive condition
Recordings of the ultrasonic calls of S. Each of the three males in the colony were
@uiuentrir were made using either a QMC S25 adult, the only sub-adults present were two of
(Ultrasound Advice, London) or an Anabat I1 the ten females. None of the females were preg-
detector (Titley Electronics, Ballina, New South nant or lactating, and seven out of the ten,
Wales). Calls were recorded on a hand-held including the two sub-adults, were nulliparous.
Table I. Comparison of morphological characters between male and female S.&niaenhlr
from Brightview (n = 13). Data are from direct measurement of characters. Values indicate
mean and standard deviations, with t-rest probability shown or ns indicating no significant
difference, Fieures for mass are in prams, other measurements are in millimetres.
Character Male (n = 3) Female (n = 10) P (1-test)
Mass (g) 51.43 f 3.59 54.78 f 5.31 ns
Ear length (mm) 17.53 f 2.06 18-10 f 1.72 ns
+
Fore arm (mm) 76.70 f 2.43 77.10 1.47 ns
Digit 3 metacarpel 79.73 f 2.54 79.29 f 2.12 ns
Dieit 3. ~halanx1 34.60 f 0.26 33.63 f 1.57 ns
~ i g3t. b halanx 2 33.27 f 1.10 32.87 f 1.12 ns
Diguit 4 m. eta carpel 62.23 f 2.79 62.19 f 2.09 ns
Digit4, phalanx 1 20.47 f 0.06 19.25 f 1.16 <0.01
+
Digit 4, phalanx2 7.87 2 0.21 7.60 0.94 ns
Di- i~ mg~i~t 55- ,m~ phetaalcaanr~xn Iel ~ -5107..2833 ff~ 20..3530 ~ ~ 4197..8600- f+ 21..10~88 ~ n~nss~ -~
Digit 5, phalanx 2 10.63 f 1.77 10.74 f 0.77 ns
352 Australian Zoologist 30(3)
Table 2. Comparison of derived morphological characters between male and female S.
Jhaiventni from Brightview (n = 13). Data are from wing tracing calculations of wing area.
Values indicate mean and standard deviations, with t-test probabilirp shown or ns indicat-
ing no significant difference.
Character Male ln = 3) Female ln = 10) P it-test)
Mas5 (kg) 0.0514 f 0.0036 0.0548 f 0.0053 ns
Wingspan (m) 0.5173 f 0.0081 0.5124 i- 0.0182 ns
M'ing area (m? 0.0324 f+ 0.0022 0.0319 f 0.0022 ns
Wing loading (Nlm') 15.64 2.00 16.92 f 217 ns
Aspect ratio 8.27 i- 0.35 8.25 f 0.51 ns
+ +
Wing-tip length ratio 1.04 0.06 1.05 0.06 ns
Wing-tip area ratio 0.56 f 0.05 0.55 i- 0.05 ns
Winx-tip shape index 1.15 f 0.06 1.09f 0.12 nr
Table 3. Comparison between morphological characters of S. JhiventrCF ar Brightview
(n = 13) and Mr. laa (n = 3: all female). Values indicate mean and standard deviations,
with t-test probability shown or ns indicatina no sianificanr difference.
Characrer Brizhtvirw Mt. Isa P (t-test)
+
Forearm length (mm) 77.0 1.619
+
Mass (kg) 0.054 0.005
+
Wingspan (m) 0.514 0.016
Wing area (m2) 0.032 f+ 0.002
Wing loading (N/mP) 16.621 2.123
Aspect ratio 8.255 f 0.461
Wing-tip length ratio 1.050 f 0.060
Wing-up area ratio 0.550 f 0.047
Wing-tip shape index 1.103+0.112
Morphometric data those found in the present study may be due in
part to differences in methods of measurement.
The means of each of the directly measured In a survey of wing morphology of 23 south-east
morphological characters by sex are shown in Queensland bat species by Rhodes (uupubl.
Table 1. There was no significant difference data), S. flauiuentris had the highest wing aspect
between sexes in size of characters, with the ratio, and the third highest wing loading. The
exception of the first phalanx of the fourth wing loading and aspect ratio closely resemble
digit. The forearm length ranged from that of Nyctznomus australis.
75.240.1 mm, which is close to the range of
A comparison of morphometric data for S.
74-80 mm given by Richards (1995), and at the
flaviumtrir from Brightview and Mt. Isa is shown
higher end of the 70-80 mm range given by
in Table 3. S. fiuiuentris from Mt. Isa have
Troughton (1925). Although females had
significantly smaller forearm length, body mass
greater mass, forearm length and ear length,
and wing area, but have wings of similar length,
males had greater lengths of all but one of the
resulting in a lower wing loading and a signifi-
wing elements. The highest variability in
cantly higher aspect ratio. Although the sample
measurements occurred in ear length and body
size from Mt. Isa is small, these differences in
mass, as indicated by the standard deviations.
wing suggest geographical variation in wing
The body mass of females was particularly
morphometry occurs within the species.
variable, most likely as a result of different age
classes.
Ectoparasites of S. flaviventris
Measurements of morphological characters The only ectoparasites found on S.@iuentrir
obtained from wing tracing data are shown in from Brightview were the larval form of one
Table 2. No significant difference occurred species of tick, Curios species (Subfamily
between sexes in any character. Males had Ornithodorinae, family Argasidae). These were
slightly larger wingspan and wing area, while identifiable only to generic level as only larvae
females had slightly higher wing loading due to were present. Eleven of the thirteen bats had
their generally greater mass and smaller wings. tick larvae, in numbers ranging from 1 to 19 per
The aspect ratio and wing loading figures are bat. Each of the three males had one tick larvae,
similar to data for S. fiuiumtris reported by and the eight females had between 1 and 19 tick
McKenzie and Rolfe (1986), but slightly higher larvae. Females had a significantly greater
+
than Norberg and Rayner (1987). The aspect number of tick larvae (mean 6.6 6.9; T-test
ratio is slightly lower than that reported for S. p = 0.03). There were no trends apparent
&uiventris by Dwyer (1965). The variation in number of ticks by mass, age class or
between published wing characteristics and reproductive condition.
March 1997 Australian Zoologist 30(3) 353
Figtre la and Ib. Example of Analook 2.0 sonographs of S. faaiuentris echolocation calls. The vertical axis represents
frequency in kiloHertz, and horizontal axis represents time with each major interval equal to l0 milliseconds. Both
call sequences are from Karawatha Forest on 2413195.C all sequence la shows shallolv echolocation calls, and lb
steepe;calls, possibly associatedw ith insect pursuit.
Flight observations and call recordings made at Karawatha Forest, where S. fl.auiaentris
were regularly seen at least one liour after
On most occasions S. flauiaentris flew between
sunset, flying with fewdeviationl above the
3 and 20 m above the ground and rarely made !1Sn
canopy at an estimated height of 20 to 25 m. At
any deviations from a very direct flight path.
Fraser Island, S. fnaiuentri,s were recorded by
This flight pattern, combined with the white
ultrasonic detection between 20:00 and 21:00
belly fur, and a distinctive fluttery wing beat,
hours on 19 January 1995, but not seen.
made S. flo,aiaentris easy to identify and observe
in flight. The capture of three specimens at At Southgate, S. f,aaiuentrk were recorded
1.5 m above the ground near Mt. Isa was flying at an estimated height of 25 m above a
probably due to the bats coming in to drink at a stock dam at2200 hrs. In the earlier part of the
nearby waterhole. At Cape Tribulation, S. night, numerous White-striped mastiff-bats
f.auiuentris were observed flying a metre or so Nyct'inomusa ustrali.sw ere active around the stock
above the mangroves and occasionally close to dam, and were mist-netted while coming in to
the water surface. On several occasionsa n aerial drink. They were not present when S.f lauiuentris
pursuit involving two bats was observed. During appeared.
the pursuit, one bat followed about I to 2 m
behind another bat, and they flew in a zig-zag Examples of echolocation calls of S.f laaiaentris
at Karawatha Forest are presented in Figure l.
pattern about 2 to 3 m above the ground. These
The cruise phase calls consist of a shallow,
flights lasted up to 30 seconds and were accom-
curved FM sweep, descending in frequency.
panied by constant vocalizations. At the end of
Some sequences containing steeper calls were
a chase the bats returned to foraging at an
recorded (Figure lb) which may represent feed-
estimated height of about 20 m.
ing buzzes. The steeper calls span a slightly
In open country, such as at Moggill, and along greater range of frequencies, and had lower
the Brisbane River, S. .fl.aaixentrisw as observed duration and time between calls (Table 4). The
flying at a constant height estimated to be 15 to characteristics of cruise and shallow calls are
20 m above the ground and, by following in a shown in Table 4. Components of the call are
vehicle, the bats were estimated to fly at about audible to humans, and sound like a repetitive,
25 to 30 km per hour. Similar observations were high-pitched bird-like chirp.
354 AustralianZ oologist3 0(3) March 1997
Table 4. Characteristics of echolocation calls of .S.&iuentrii. morphology and behaviour. McKenzie and
Data from sequences illustrated in Figure I. Figures are Rolfe (1986) observed S. fhuiuentris above the
means generated bv Anabat software.
canopy and in open areas next to vegetation.
Cruise calls Steep calls Wilson et al. (1993) described a very large bat
Character (i.e., Fiaure la) (i.e., Fiyure lb) that was flying high with a pale underside that
was probably S. flauiuentris. Our observations
Start frequency (kHz) 28 33.5
were similar, with S. fiuiuentris observed most
End frequency (kHz) 19.5 22.5
Call duration (ms) 15.2 5.19 often flyi.ng about 15 to 25 m above the ground
Time between calls (ms) 379 79.6 with few deviations from a straight flight path.
The flight behaviour described for S.flauiuen-
tris is similar to N. australis, which has similar
Additional records
wing morphometry. Dwyer (1965) found S.
There were no obvious ectoparasites or flauiuentris had the closest aspect ratio and wing
injuries on the two S. flauiuenhis found on the loading to N. australis, but both characters were
ground in suburban Brisbane. Body weights of less extreme, which was predicted to give slower,
these two bats were 32 and 38 g and they made more manoeuvrable flight. The aspect ratio and
no attempt to fly. During their short period of wing loading was found to be very close to that
confinement they drank very little water and of N. australis by Rhodes (unpubl. data). The
proved to be difficult to feed on mealworms, similar wing morphology of both species results
moths or dog food. Autopsies performed on the in them having similar flight behaviour. Both
bats following their death revealed that they species have rapid, direct flight suited to above
both had infected gums, and their mouths and canopy flight. In an open space, rapid flight
teeth were darkly stained. The molars on both enables prey to be encountered at a veater rate.
specimens were worn almost to the gumline. It
was not determined whether the condition of There is no published information on the
the oral cavity was due to attempts to feed the echolocation calls of S. flauiuentris, the only
bats in captivity or if it was responsible for their material available for comparison being refer-
poor health. No obvious cause of their deaths ence calls from Anabat software. The echoloca-
could be determined. tion calls of the S. jluuiuentris in this study are
similar in shape to N. australis calls on Anabat
In a dry creekbed 15 km south of Mt. Isa on software, but are about 10 kHz higher.
the Djarra Road (20°52'S, 13g028'E), three S.
flauiuentris were captured in a mist net between Some competition could be expected to occur
1830 and 1900 hours on 25 September 1993. between S. fiuiuentris and N. australis due to
Morphometric data were obtained from wing their similar size, wing morphometry and
tracing and measuring these bats. The net was echolocation call. The observations at Southgate
set at ground level under the branches of a 6 m of N. australis foraging earlier in the evening
high River Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulemis, than S. flauiuentris suggest these species fly at
which was growing in the watercourse. The site different times. This may be a result of a change
was 20 m from an open waterhole which was in prey density or type during the night. The
approximately 6 m in diameter and 0.6 m deep. favoured prey of S.&uiuenhis may emerge later
The surrounding country was dominated by in the night compared to that of N. australis.
Snappy Gum E. hevfolia on low stony hills Taylor and O'Neill (1988) suggest that the
covered by Spinifex Triodia pungem. A thunder- height of insect prey decreases with time after
storm had filled the waterhole earlier in the sunset. If this is the case, S. Jauiuentris may be
afternoon. better suited than N. australic for foraging at low
prey densities above the canopy. Vestjens and
DISCUSSION Hall (1977) found Orthoptera (grasshoppers),
two Coleoptera (chafers), and a Hemiptera
The appearance of S.flauiuentris is distinctive, (bug), in the stomachs of three S. flauiuentris in
not only because of its coloration, but its large the Northern Territory. Coles and Lumsden
size and long, narrow wings. These morpho- (1993) found only beetles in the stomachs of S.
logical characteristics are responsible for the flauiuentris from Cape York. While these were
species characteristic flight behaviour. Rapid small samples from localities outside of southern
flight with low manoeuvrability are associated Queensland, they differ to N. australis, which
with high body mass and long, narrow wings was found to have predominantly Lepidoptera
(Pennycuick 1975; Norberg 1981). This flight (moths) in the stomachs of 21 individuals from
style is best suited to flight in very open three localities outside of Queensland (Vestjens
areas well away from obstacles, such as above and Hall 1977).
the canopy in a forest, or at lower heights
in unforested areas. Our observations of S. S.flaviumtris from Mt. Isa is smaller than from
fiuiuentris flight behaviour, and those from pre- Brightview in all characters other than
vious studies support this association between wingspan. This means their wings are relatively
Australian Zoologist 30(3) 355
longer and more narrow, with more pointed individuals may be rare or difficult to find, or
tips. Although the sample size from Mt. Isa is may be occumng to an increasing extent as a
small, it suggests geographical variation in the result of shortage of roost trees. Each scenario
species. Although geographical variation was demonstrates the importance of mature and
not further examined in the present study, dead eucalypts for S. fiuiuentrir roosts. Other !
measurements of 21 characters from 10 bat species show a preference for mature forest,
localities by Troughton (1925) indicate geo- containing trees with a diameter at breast height
graphical variation does occur in S. &uiuentris. greater than 80 cm, for roosting (Lunney et al.
The flight behaviour of S.fiviuenlris at Mt. Isa 1985, 1988; Taylor and Sawa 1988). Observa- 1
may differ from in south-east Queensland as a tions of trees at dusk may indicate the presence !
result of the morphological variation. The of bat species, but some species may emerge
I
longer more narrow wings may give more after darkness and be missed. Retention of
economical, enduring flight. The capture of S. mature and dead trees will provide potential
flaviuentks close to the ground near Mt. Isa roosts for this species, as well as a variety of
suggests that there could have been a roost other mammals and birds.
hollow in the E. camaldulemis overhead, or the
bats may have been coming down to drink at the
nearby waterhole. The vocalizations of the first ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
captured specimen may have also attracted the
Thanks go to a number of people who assisted
other two bats.
with aspects of this research. Nick Campbell
There is speculation that S. ~uiuatriri s identified the ticks from the Brightview bats and
migratory, based on collection locality records proof read an early draft of this paper. Thanks
occurring during one part of the year only to Greg Richards and an anonymous referee for
(Reardon and Flavel 1987; Richards 1995). The providing valuable comments on the manu-
long, narrow wings described in this study would script. David and Ginney Locke of the Lockyer
appear suited to migration. However, the Valley fauna sanctuary obtained the bats from
patterns of seasonal fat deposition observed in the Brightview residents who found the bats in
the species by Chimimba and Kitchener (1987) the felled tree, recorded site details, released the
indicate that migration may not occur. The large Live bats and passed the deceased bats on to us.
colony of both sexes found at Brightview may Monika Feuser assisted with measurements and
indicate that clustering is a winter behaviour. ectoparasite collection from the Brightview bats.
The greater numbers of ectoparasites on female
S. flaviuentris in the Brightview roost may be a
result of sex differences in roost fidelity, or roost REFERENCES
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BOOK REVIEWS -- BOOK REVIEWS
"Name That Insect A Guide to the Insects of are so common, especially in the southern temperate
Southeastern Australia" by T. R. New, 1996. regions, especially Australia and southern Africa. The
Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Vic. section on body structure is necessary to understand
194 pp. RRP $19.95. ISBN 0 19 553782 3. terms used in subsequent chapters. It is a basic,
uncomplicated discussion of various parts of insects
This is a most useful book for students, naturalists,
and is supplemented with stylized but very useful
teachers and those interested in the natural history of
line drawings. It is here that the reader should be
Australia and in particular, the entomological fauna
aware that there is a glossary of mainly structural
of South Australia. As stated in the preface, this book
elements of insects at the back of the book and probably
is designed to introduce the insecu of the region and
will be referred to extensively. The last section on
to help people recognize some of the many kinds that
classification is very basic indeed but will help people
are present. The author has included selected species
to better understand the concepts of orders, families,
of all orders, and used selected examples to illustrate
genera and species. Chapter 2, Insect Divevsity in South-
their diversity and biology in southeastern Australia.
emtern Awtralia, briefly characterizes the boundaries
There are ten chapters and each has extensive line of the area and discusses some of the enormous
drawings to help the reader. An unusual feature of varietv of natural environment in the area. The
this book .i s t.h at I could find only four references in authh carefully pointed out the often drastic effects
the text Droner. in Cha~ter2 as footnotes and in of two centuries of Euro~eanin vasion and intensive
Appendix I in the text. ?here is no reference list at land use upon native insect populations.
the end of the book. There are three references in the
Chapter 3, The Recognition of Insect Orders, would be
preface and these seven are all the reader has to rely
useful in any part of Australia. In his discussion, the
on to pursue subjecu of interest further. This is not
author included true insecu and three classes of allied
necessarily a criticism of the book but it is unusual to
near-insects, many of which are found commonly.
see such a lack of literature in a general introductory
Table 1 lists the classes of insecu and related
text.
arthropods from the most primitive to the most
Chapter 1, The Diversity, Structure and Cla.sstficatwn advanced. Short descriptions of general habitats
of Inseclr, is a general introduction to the study of where each group may be found is included. Following
insects. It is here that the reader finds that most the introduction, there is an interesting section on
entomologists accept estimates of 5-10 million insect "why identify insects". It certainly goes well beyond
species worldwide (most of which are still unrecognized . . . the entrenched human desire to identify and
"
or formally described), and some believe that there compartmentalize elements of our natural world." For
could be up to 80 million species! These figures give instance, the first element in control of insect pests is
an indication ofjust how little is known about the vast to find exactly which species is causing the problem. In
world of insects. The section on insect diversity is quite many cases, proper identification of biological control
interesting and gives one some reasons why insects agents may have great potential in affecting pest
March 1997 Australian Zoologist 30(3) 357