Novel Materials Processing by Advanced Electromagnetic Energy Sources. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Novel Materials Processing by Advanced Electromagnetic Energy Sources March 19–22, 2004, Osaka, Japan

427 Pages·16.432 MB·English

by  S. Miyake (Auth.)

PREFACE
The International Symposium on Novel Materials Processing by Advanced
Electromagnetic Energy Sources (MAPEES04) was organized by the Joining and Welding
Research Institute, Osaka University and held on March 19-22, 2004. It was supported by the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and National
Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (MST). It was cooperated with
Atomic Energy Society of Japan, The Ceramic Society of Japan, The Chemical Society of
Japan, High Temperature Society of Japan, The Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan, The
Japan Institute of Metals, The Japan Society of Applied Physics, The Japan Society of Plasma
Science and Nuclear Fusion Research, Japan Society of Powder and Powder Metallurgy,
Japan Welding Engineering Society and Japan Welding Society.
About 250 attendants made a big event of the symposium in which 2 plenary lectures, 03
keynote lectures, 90 oral and 05 poster presentations were dedicated to the latest development
and progress of materials processing by electromagnetic energy sources. Represented
countries include: Australia, China, Czech Republic, Germany, Japan, Korea, Russia, Sweden,
UK and USA.
This volume contains the selected papers presented at the symposium and provides na
excellent reference to the progress in the development of advanced electromagnetic energy
sources and application to materials processing. The manuscripts have been peer reviewed in
the customary way for a standard journal publication. The editorial board consisted of
members of Osaka University, Japan with N. Abe, .S Kirihara, .Y Makino, .S Miyake, .H
Serizawa, .T Shibayanagi, .Y Takahashi, .M Tsukamoto and .T Tsumura. Thanks are due to
the more than 05 colleagues who acted as careful referees for the papers.
Number of works reported in this volume are ,29 and they are divided into 8 chapters
including 2 Plenary Lectures in Chapter ;1 Plasma Processing, Microwave/mm-wave
Processing, Laser Processing, Ion Cluster and Ultrafine Particle Processing, Pulsed High
Current Processing, as well as Functional Materials Synthesis, Coating and Modification of
Materials. They show significant progress in novel and interdisciplinary materials processing
with close correlation of development and control of advanced electromagnetic energy
sources.
The chairman of the symposium would like to thank lla of the session chairmen, invited
and oral speakers, poster presenters and lla of participants for their contribution in making the
meeting successful. Thanks are also due to lla members of the organizing committee,
international advisory committee and local organizing committee.
Editor-in-Chief
.S Miyake
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Novel Materials Processing (MAPEES'04)
S. Miyake (Ed.)
(cid:14)9 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved
SMART PROCESSING DEVELOPMENT OF NOVEL MATERIALS
FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE CONTROL
Yoshinari Miyamoto*, Soshu Kirihara*, Keitarou Hino*,
Mitsuo Wada Takeda**, Katsuya Honda***, Kazuaki Sakoda****
* Smart Processing Research Center,
Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka University,
lbaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
** Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Shinshu University
3-1-1 Asahi Matsumoto, Nagano 390-8621, Japan
***Department of Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Shinshu University
3-1-1 Asahi Matsumoto, Nagano 390-8621, Japan
**** Nanomaterials Laboratory, National Institute for Matrerials Science
3-13 Sakura, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0003, Japan
Abstract: A new concept of the smart processing is proposed that can create highly
functional materials and components by finely controlling the process energy and
engineering structures. Novel materials of 3D photonic crystals and fractals for
electromagnetic wave control are demonstrated which are constructed of dielectric
ceramics and polymer by a CAD/CAM system of stereolithography. Freeform
fabrication and modification of photonic crystals with diamond structure can open
various applications to communication and sensing technology in GHz and THz range.
Photonic fractal is the entirely new material which can strongly localize electromagnetic
waves in the fractal structure without reflection and transmission. A wide variety of
applications to communication, energy, and sensing are also expected.
Keywords: Photonic Fractal, Photonic Crystal, CAD~CAM, Microwave, Millimeter
Wave, Terahertz Wave, Stereolithography.
1. CONCEPT OF SMART PROCESSING joining methods with three-dimensional freeform
fabrication on the nano and micro scale. The
Smart Processing Research Center has been Smart Green Process is investigating toxic free
established in Joining and Welding Research and eco-joining and interconnecting processes for
Institute, Osaka University in 2003, based on the advanced micro- electronic chips and devices.
new concept of the smart processing in which the The Nano-particles Bonding is developing ways
process energy is minimized and supplied to a to precise control the bonding of nanosized
limited area or point by fine and precise control of particles and materials for information technology,
materials processing that can lead to originate environmental engineering, and life science. The
new functions or higher performances resulting in Reliability Assessment and Prediction will
saving energy and resources. There are six develop evaluation and modeling tools for joining
research departments in SPRC. The department of of nano- or microstructured materials and devices.
The Smart Beam Processing is developing ways In the department of The Nano/Micro Structure
to precise control and optimize the energy and Control, the 3D architecture for nano/micro
functions of laser and fine particle beams used for structured materials of ceramics, polymers, metals,
joining and material processing. The Smart and their composites has been developed using
Coating Process is investigating how to finely solid freeform fabrication (SFF) techniques of
control and optimize plasma spray processing on CAD/CAM system (Miyamoto, et al., 2000;
the nano and micro scale for modifying surfaces ,arahiriK et al., 2002a, b; Kanehira, et al., 2003;
of medical and environment-purification materials. Oh, et al., 2003). Many SFF processes have been
The Nano/Micro Structure Control aims to create developed and practically used since 1990s
new material functions by integrating advanced (Pique., et al., 2003). These processes have been
applied mainly in the field of prototyping of medium and confirmed the formation of the
complicated models and components. If both complete photonic band gap (Yablonovitch and
external and internal structures or textures are Gmitter, 1991).
freely designed and fabricated using various We have succeeded in fabricating a perfect
materials with dielectric, magnetic, catalytic, heat diamond structure with a millimeter size
and/or wear resistant properties, the excellent periodicity by stereolithography of an SFF
integration of the material structure and function process. The periodic structure is composed of an
would be realized. As such examples, 3D epoxy lattice incorporating TiO2-SiO2 composite
photonic crystals and fractals are demonstrated particles. These artificial crystals showed
which we are developing as novel materials for photonic band gap in a GHz range. Complex 3D
electromagnetic wave control. structures, such as diamond lattice and its various
modifications including lattice defect, graded
2. 3D Photonic Crystals for Electromagnetic
Control in GHz to THz Range
Photonic crystal is known as a periodic dielectric
array with different dielectric constants which can
totally reflect light or electromagnetic waves with
the wavelength similar to the periodicity due to
Bragg deflection and form the photonic band gap
like the formation of electronic band gap in
semiconductors (Joannoppoulos, et al., 1995).
Research and development on photonic crystals
are rapidly increasing since 1990s became many
applications to optical and communication
devices are expected.
The diamond structure is considered as an ideal
structure for photonic crystals because it can
provide a complete photonic band gap in which
electromagnetic waves are totally reflected for all
directions (Ho, et al., 1990). It is difficult,
however, to fabricate such a complex structure
because the lattice is bonded three dimensionally
with a non-orthogonal angle of . ~ 109.5
Yablonovitch and Gmitter fabricated a diamond-
like structure called "Yablonovite" by drilling
holes at different angles in a slab of dielectric
gninnacS
~ Mirror
Laser Diode LBO AOM
Fig.2. Photos of lattice planes of the normal
0 f Lens
Length: 350nm Wave diamond structure made from epoxy with
200mW Rating Power: TiO2-SiO2 dispersed particles, and the
corresponding attenuations of transmission
eegeeuqS amplitude of microwave with TEl0 mode in
position Control Z
each direction as a function of frequency.
Layer Thickness
100pro " lattice spacing, and inverse structure as well as
simple device formations, can be easily designed
Object 3-D and formed by the CAD/CAM system of
stereolithography.
Elevator Table The structure of diamond photonic crystals and its
modifications or simple device models are
Photo Polymer
designed on a computer using a CAD program
(Toyota Caelum Co. Ltd, thinkdesign ver.5.0).
Fig.1 A schematic illustration of a stereo- The designed structure is converted into a rapid
lithographic machine. prototyping format (STL file), sliced into a set of
thin sections, and transferred to a stereographic 0.7 i i i i 40
machine (D-MEC Co.Ltd, Japan, SCS-300P). 0.6
Figure 1 illustrates a schematic of a stereo-
lithographic machine. This machine forms a 4.11 ~"
three-dimensional object layer- by-layer by
scanning a UV laser of 355 nm in wavelength
over a liquid photopolymer epoxy resin. The o i /I 1o~ ~
thickness of each layer is about 100 ~tm. The
dimension accuracy of the structure is within 0 ~ L F X " W F K 0
0.15 %. The TiO2-SiO2 powders with a particle <111> <100> <110>
size of about 100m are dispersed into the liquid Calculated Electromagnetic Band of InvDeirasmeo nd Structure
resin in order to increase the dielectric constant of O--O Frequency Raage ofPhotonic Bandgap Obtained by Experiment
the lattice. Perfect Photonic Bandgap Opening for All Crystal Directions
Fig.4. Calculated band diagram for the inverse
diamond structure.
times higher than that of epoxy. All attenuations
are very sharp which can be used for filters.
However, frequency levels are different
depending on the periodic distance of each
direction and no common band gap is opened due
to the low dielectric constant of the lattice.
It is possible to widen the band gap by increasing
the filling factor of the dielectric medium. An
easy way to increase the filling factor is to design
the inverse diamond structure which consists of
the diamond lattice of air holes in the dielectric
medium. Figure 3 shows each plane of the inverse
diamond structure and the attenuation curves. The
filling factor is increased to 67 vol.% from 33
vol.% of the normal diamond structure. The band
gap is broad and the common band gap is formed
between 17-18 GHz. Figure 4 shows the band
diagram calculated for the inverse diamond
structure by the plain wave expansion method (Ho,
et al., 1990). We can use the position data in a
CAD model for calculation of the structure factor
in band calculation. The closed circles are the
measured band edges which are well agreed to the
Fig.3. Photos of lattice planes of the inverse
diamond structure made from epoxy with
TiO2-SiO2 dispersed particles, and the
corresponding attenuations of transmission
amplitude of microwave with 0~ET mode in
each direction as a function of frequency.
Figure 2 shows lattice planes of the diamond
structure on (100), (110), (111), and the
attenuation of microwaves normal to each plane Fig.5. Photo of a directional antenna head made
which was measured using a network analyzer of the graded diamond structure and its
(HP-85070B) and a microwave metal cavity. The emission profile. The microwave at 51 GHz
unit cell dimension is 51 mm. The content of was emitted from a mono-pole antenna at the
TiO2-SiO2 in the epoxy lattice is 7 vol.%. The middle of the interface between the normal
dielectric constant of the lattice is 4 which is two and extended lattices.
band diagram. It is very important for device periodicity of several ten to hundreds pan are
applications to develop various modification formed, such a beam device emitting THz wave
techniques of photonic crystal structures. Figure 5 with several tens to hundreds pan wavelength can
is a directional antenna made of a graded photonic be used as a micro-radar sensor which is expected
crystal consisting of the normal and extended to detect surface cracks or defects of materials,
diamond lattices. When the electromagnetic wave bacterium in foods, skin cancer, and other defects
with the similar wavelength to the normal lattice or foreign objects. When the lattice rods become
thin in micro- or nano-meter size, nanometer
sized ceramic particles must be dispersed into the
epoxy lattice. Figure 6 shows such a nano-sized
TiO2-SiO2 particles (7 vol.%) dispersed photonic
crystal. It consists of 1000 unit cells with the
lattice constant of lmm. The transmission
amplitude was measured by terahertz time-
domain spectrometry (Kitahara, 2001). The band
gap is formed in 200 GHz range as shown in
Fig. 7.
3. CONFINEMENT OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN 3D
PHOTONIC FRACTALS
Fractal is known as a geometric structure with
self-similarity that is repeated at ever scales to
produce complex shapes and surfaces
Fog.6. Photo of a diamond photonic crystal (Mandelbrot, 1982). The fractal structure has no
composed of 1000 unit cells. periodicity and no translational symmetry like
crystal structures. Recently, we have succeeded in
period is emitted at the center of the interface fabrication of 3D fractal structures called Menger
between the normal and extended lattices, the sponge, which are made of dielectric media such
wave is reflected by the normal lattice and as epoxy and ceramics, and found a significant
reflected toward the opposite direction. The event that the electromagnetic wave is strongly
microwave emitted is collected in one direction localized in the fractal without reflectance and
and amplified to 1 0O times against the emission to transmittance (Takeda, et al., 2004; Miyamoto, et
all directions. Such a graded photonic crystal can al., 2004). 3D photonic crystal totally reflects
be used as a high performance and light electromagnetic waves in the band gap without
directional antenna. transmission. On the other hand, 3D photonic
If much smaller photonic crystals with the fractal does not form the band gap, but the
electromagnetic wave with the wavelength
associated with the fractal pattern, dimension, and
size is strongly localized. Such a material which
can confine electromagnetic wave without
reflectance and transmittance is not known until
now. Moreover, a variety of potential applications
to communication, energy, sensing, medical care,
and many other fields can be considered.
Interaction of optical, electromagnetic, and
acoustical waves with fractal structures has been
of theoretical and practical interest in recent years
(Alexander and Orbach, 1982; Shalaev, 2000;
Bertolotti, et al., 1996; Sibilia, et al., 1998; Wen,
et al, 2002; Hohlfeld and Cohen, 1999). However,
studies concerning the propagation properties of
electromagnetic waves in dielectric fractal
structures were restricted to one-dimensional
planar fractals. A 3D fractal structure is necessary
Fig.7. Transmission of electromagnetic wave for to completely localize the light or electromagnetic
the diamond photonic crystal as a function of waves in a 3D space. Nevertheless, dielectric 3D
frequency. fractal structures were not fabricated probably due
to the difficult construction. reflection was placed 10mm away and normal to
We have fabricated 3D fractals called Menger the surface of the cubic sample. Another antenna
sponge of size comparable with microwave range was placed at the opposite side of the sample to
by stereolithography and investigated the receive the microwave. A thick layer of
propagation characteristics of electromagnetic low-density absorber was placed around the four
waves in this structure. It is very difficult to sides of the sample to prevent disturbance from
fabricate such a complex fractal structure by other superfluous reflection and diffraction components.
methods except CAD/CAM systems. The result is shown in Fig. 9. Both sharp
The Menger sponge is the 3D version of a Cantor attenuations for reflection and transmission to -40
bar fractal (Sun and Jaggard, 1991). The Cantor dB were observed at about 8 GHz.
bar fractal is formed by extracting the center It is confirmed in our previous study that this
segment of equivalent three segments divided localization of electromagnetic wave exists in the
from an initial bar and repeating this process to large central air-cube of the Menger sponge
the remaining two side segments. The fractal structure and the wavelength of the localized
dimension D of the Menger sponge is calculated mode can be calculated using the following
by the following relationship: N = S ,D where N is empirical equation (Takeda, et al., 2004).
the number of the self-similar units newly created
when the size of the initial unit decreases to 1/S. ~col,~ = 2/3 a ffeS/~ (1)
In the present Menger sponge, N = 20, and S = 3,
so that D = log 20 / log 3 ~- 2.73. where ~,loeal is the wavelength of the localized
mode in air (optical length), a is the cube side
length, r~eS is the mean dielectric constant of the
fractal structure. In the case of the stage 3 Menger
sponge, a = 27 mm, and raeG is 4.17. The
calculated wavelength of l~ol.~ is 36.75 mm. Thus
Fig.8. Photo of a stage 3 Menger sponge Fractal
made of TiO2-SiO2 particles dispersed in
epoxy, and the reflection and transmission
spectra.
We constructed it from a dielectric cube with a
side length a, which is composed of TiO2-SiO2
dispersed epoxy composite as shown in Fig. 8. Fig.9. Reflection and transmission spectra of
The cube is divided into 27 identical cube pieces, electromagnetic wave for the stage 3 Menger
and the seven pieces at the body- and face-centers sponge fractal.
are extracted. By repeating the same extraction
process for the remaining twenty pieces we create the frequency of the localized mode is obtained to
the Menger sponge. The side length a of the be 8.16 GHz, which agreed well with the
initiator is 27 mm. The lengths of the longest, measured frequency. The Q factor obtained from
middle, and shortest sides of the square air rods the attenuation peak of the transmission spectrum
are 9 mm, 3 mm, and 1 mm, respectively. is 8000 suggesting the relaxation time of the
Normally incident reflection and transmission localized mode to be 167 ns (Kirihara, et al.,
spectra of the Menger sponge were measured by 2004). This relaxation time allows more than 100
using a network analyzer and two mono-pole times computation of elemental step in a current
antennae (Takeda, et al., 2004). A mono-pole personal computer.
antenna for microwave emission and detection of Figure 01 shows a stage 3 Menger sponge fractal
made of 100 % TiO2-SiO2 ceramic which was mode, if the structure is composed of an
sintered at 1450~ in air after burning the 10 efficiently low dielectric-loss material and the
vol% TiO2-SiO2 dispersed epoxy fractal as shown number of stage m is sufficient which can reduce
in Fig. 8. The linear shrinkage ratio is 57 % and the medium of fractal. Such energy accumulation
the porosity is 55 %. The cube edge length; a is in the 3D fractal structure may provide new
11.6 mm. The mean dielectric constant of the various heat treatment devices for industrial,
ceramic fractal; ffe~ is 3.6. The sintered fractal is home and medical uses depending on the power.
porous, but the complex structure is well If high efficiency in energy accumulation is
conserved without any cracks. Both reflection and realized, photonic capacitors and collectors would
transmission spectra showed deep dips at 19.1 be realized.
GHz as shown in Fig. .11 The calculated
frequency of the localized mode using equation
(1) is 20.5 GHz, which is nearly close to the
measured frequency. Dense ceramic photonic
fractals would lead to development of new
information and communication micro devices.
The strong localization of electromagnetic wave
can not be explained by Bragg deflection and
band gap formation. Probably such localization
may occur due to the interference of multiple
reflections in the fractal structure. However, it is
not solved yet at present. The theoretical study to
account for the localization of electromagnetic
wave in 3D fractal structures is very interesting
and challenging.
Fig.ll. Reflection and transmission spectra of
electromagnetic wave for the ceramic
Menger sponge fractal.
4. SUMMARY
There would be many routes to realize the
concept of smart processing that can produce high
performance products by finely controlling energy
and resources resulting in saving energy and
resources. We are applying the SFF process as a
smart processing to create new functional
components such as photonic crystals and fractals.
These smart processes are based on CAD/CAM
Fig.10. Photo of a ceramic Menger sponge fractal system so that the process can be linked by
of TiO2-SiO2. internet. Such smart process network will realize
worldwide collaborations and accelerate
Dielectric fractal structure such as Menger sponge development of new materials science and
can provide an ideal absorber without reflectance engineering, that would lead to establishing
and transmission for electromagnetic waves remote manufacturing systems in industry.
because the corresponding frequency can be
varied widely by the use of scaling law between
the frequency and size and effective dielectric ACKOWLEDGEMENT
constant of the fractal at the initial stage. Of
course, when the fractal structure is made in This study is partially supported by the grant for
optical wave scales, the light can be localized and the 12 ts Century's COE program "Center of
confmed that will be used to various photonic Excellence for Advanced Structural and
applications. It may be possible to confine and Functional Materials Design" under the auspices
accumulate the electromagnetic energy in the 3D of the Ministry of Education, Culture, sports,
fractal structure as a confined electromagnetic Science and Technology.
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